21. Sanitary culture of the rural population in the 1920-1940s. Housing sanitary culture1. What house did your family have? Cross, five-wall, what else? How many rooms were there in the house?2. Who built it? What were they built from? Adobe, log house, what else?3. How many windows

Introduction

Chapter I. Conditions for cultural development in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II 24

1. Government cultural policy 24

2. Siberian cities as centers of cultural development 31

3. The role of the church in the cultural life of the Siberian population 49

Chapter II. Changes in the content of culture in the era of Catherine II 71

1. Transformation of the education system 71

2. Cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population 91

3. Traditional rituals and festive entertainments of Siberians 116

Conclusion 124

Notes 128

Sources and Literature 145

Appendix 157

Introduction to work

Relevance of the problem

Culture is a qualitative characteristic of society. At present, interest in the history of cultural development has increased significantly, culture is recognized as one of the important regulators of social life, as well as a necessary condition for the development of the individual as a subject of versatile social activity.

The growth of interest in the study of various aspects of culture was characteristic of the entire world science of the twentieth century, and has especially intensified in recent decades. It may seem paradoxical that the history of the culture of the multinational Russian people remains poorly understood in our country. This is especially true of the history of regional culture, which is an organic part of the all-Russian, but at the same time, retains its originality. Siberia, which for a long time was considered only as a “raw material appendage” of Russia, also belongs to such regions. That is why the works on the history of Siberia are dominated by socio-economic and political aspects, while the issues of cultural development, the formation of the spirituality of the people remain practically unexplored. Therefore, the topic chosen for the dissertation research seems to be relevant.

The relevance of this topic is also explained by the vital importance of the implementation of cultural ties for the full existence of any national culture. Historical experience shows that no culture is limited by its own roots, but perceives and uses what is necessary from other cultures. The perception of global spiritual values ​​is a natural and objective process caused by the need of each people to go beyond their own culture, which is necessary for its further successful development.

Based on the recognition of the importance of culture for social development and its special peacekeeping role in the era of globalization, in the second half

1990s UNESCO identified the most important areas of research, one of which was the viability (vitality) of culture. It is measured by such indicators as literacy, content of folk arts and crafts, preservation of cultural heritage, access to and participation of the population in cultural activities.

The cultural development of the era of enlightened absolutism is a complex multifaceted process, the "primal impetus" to which was the reforms of Peter the Great. These reforms brought both the country itself and its culture from the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages to a new level. 1 The Age of Enlightenment is an important period in the development of Russian culture, which meant the gradual transformation of traditional culture into the culture of modern times. The policy of enlightened absolutism, characteristic of a number of European states in the 2nd half of the 18th century. - this is not only the transformation of obsolete social institutions, the abolition of class privileges of the clergy, the "alliance of sovereigns with philosophers" 2 , but also the development of the cultural sphere, education, patronage of the arts and sciences. This policy was officially proclaimed in 1762 by Catherine II.

At this time, the processes that began even under Peter I continue intensively: the “secularization” of culture - its separation from faith, confrontational tendencies between the enlightened liberal "minority" (cultural elite) and conservative-minded by the majority (unenlightened masses), and as a result - a gap between the culture of the enlightened nobility, gravitating towards European civilization, and the folk culture of the vast majority of the population. Russian culture of Siberia in the second half of the 18th century. was influenced by the educational processes taking place in the country. In it there is a division into a religious and secular layer, and the removal in the XVIII century. churches from influencing politics and the education system in the state contributed to the further promotion of secular culture to the fore. Therefore, the culture of Siberia

era of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II should be viewed as a process of coexistence of two spheres - secular and spiritual.

The picture of the cultural development of Siberia cannot be complete without the concept of "province". According to the definition of S. Ozhegov's dictionary, the term "provincial" means a non-capital space of life and culture. The second meaning includes an evaluative negative meaning: backward, naive, rustic." To this meaning is added the political myth about the secondary importance (second-rate) of everything provincial, including cultural traditions, cultural heritage, in the existing hierarchy of assessments of the activities of representatives of the provincial intelligentsia.

In our case, all these accents are taken into account, but the methodological priority is given to the geographical meaning - remoteness from the center of the country. The province is understood as a designation of a regional, geographical unit, remote from the center, but at the same time being a special socio-cultural system. The metropolitan and provincial cultures are two specific subsystems of almost any national culture of spatially large countries.

Fundamental for the definition of the conceptual apparatus and the correlation of key concepts for us is the idea of ​​"dialogue of cultures" as the basis of the civilization of the future. A feature of the culture of the so-called modern times, related to to The XVIII century, along with the strengthening of secularism and the growing attention to the human person, is the deepening of ties with other countries. The specificity of the Siberian region consisted in a significant impact on the life and cultural development of Asian countries, in particular China. However, in our study, we give priority to the European vector, since the policy of enlightened absolutism involved many-sided contacts with developed European countries. Russia of the 18th century borrowed a lot from European countries, and this applies not only to external manifestations expressed in manners, clothes, and lifestyle. "Europeanization" has largely affected education and the cultural sphere.

Thus, the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, by which we mean, first of all, the existence of two main layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: the noble (or secular) culture and the culture of the bulk of the population - religious, peasant, constitutes the subject independent study. Secular culture - everything new, brought from European Russia, not previously common in Siberia, and which has become characteristic of cities. Peasant, spiritual culture - associated with centuries-old traditions, customs, religion, continued to live mainly in rural areas.

The degree of knowledge of the problem

It should be noted that some aspects of this topic were covered by historians, but, as a rule, in works of a general nature, where a rather modest place was assigned to the issues of the cultural development of Siberia during the era of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. The first stage of development refers to the pre-revolutionary period. Study of the culture of Siberia in the 18th century. at that time was in its infancy. The famous explorer of Siberia G.F. Miller, like the entire Russian public of that time, perceived it as "a country in which neither science nor art flourished, and the ability to write, for the most part, was not widespread ...".

In the 40s - 80s. 19th century the works of P.A. Slovtsova, A.P. Shchapova, V.K. Andrievich, P.M. Golovachev, N.M. Yadrintsev devoted to general issues of the history of Siberia. In them, the first attempts were made to characterize the level of general culture in Siberia, which, as a rule, was rated very low by the authors. 5 In the work of P.A. Slovtsov "Historical Review of Siberia", in addition to economic and political problems, some issues of the cultural life of Siberia are considered. Basically, the author paid attention to traditional culture - the festive entertainment of the townspeople,

ancient pagan rituals of shamans, noting that these specific rituals in Siberia were preserved in some places even in the 2nd half of the 18th century. 6

In the XIX - early XX centuries. On the pages of Siberian periodicals, fragmentarily different aspects of cultural development, including in the period of interest to us, begin to be considered. These are the publications of S.S. Shashkov, I. Malinovsky, V.A. Zagorsky (about the life and customs of Siberia in the 18th century), V.A. Batina (the beginning of public education in Minusinsk), in which some regions of Siberia are studied separately, which does not allow us to see the overall picture of the development of the cultural sphere. 7

“... Siberia was much more ignorant than Russia of that time, and the life of Siberian cities was noisy and ugly,” noted S. Shashkov in 1867. 8

I. Malinovsky in the article "Siberia and Cultural Issues" emphasized that Russia entered the stage of world history later than other states, but, nevertheless, adjoining the West and the East at the same time, carried out "the mission of being the bearer and distributor of European culture in the East." When asked whether this mission was carried out, the author gives a negative answer, since the bulk of the population - ordinary Cossacks, service people, exiled criminals, runaway serfs, self-serving industrialists and merchants, various "walking people" - could not be the conductors of culture. He noted “amazing ignorance, a complete lack of literacy, vices as the main distinguishing feature of local residents, the absence of mail, books, magazines, newspapers ... Ignorance reigned among the merchants and even the highest ranks. Half of the priests and deacons could neither read nor write.

The downside of these works is that they were all published without references to archival sources, which were undoubtedly used. Absolutely all of these authors also noted the extremely low level of Siberian culture.

In the XX century. a new stage begins in the historiography of the problem. At this time, special works appeared in which an attempt was made to illuminate

development of a particular area of ​​cultural development. The first major study on one of the sections of the culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was the book by N.S. Yurtsovsky "Essays on the history of enlightenment in Siberia", published in 1923 in Novonikolaevsk. This is a summary essay on the history of education in Siberia. In particular, the author pays attention to the organization of education in Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century, and changes in it in connection with the school reform of Catherine II. ten

In 1924 D.A. Boldyrev-Kazarin published a brochure describing the applied art of the Russian population of Siberia - peasant painting, ornamentation, wood carving, sculpture, etc. At the same time, for the first time, he justifies the allocation of a special style in architecture - the Siberian Baroque.

One of the most significant in the study of the Russian culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was, of course, the publication in 1947 of the book by M. K. Azadovsky “Essays on the Literature and Culture of Siberia”. The author of this book, along with a description of the development of literature in Siberia, was the first of the Soviet researchers to raise the question of the general nature and level of cultural development of Siberia in comparison with the European part of the country and made an attempt to give a general description of the cultural life of the region, highlighting regional specifics (Irkutsk, Tobolsk) , without delving into a detailed consideration of individual aspects of culture (education, theater, painting, architecture, etc.) and without links to archival materials.

Following the publication of the book by M. K. Azadovsky in the 1940s - early 1960s. A series of works devoted to the study of certain aspects of the cultural past of Siberia was published. Thus, the history of the theater in Siberia was covered in the works of P.G. Malyarevsky, S.G. Landau, B. Zherebtsova. In accordance with the generally accepted assessments of the Soviet era, these works contain a mostly negative opinion about the development of theatrical business in Siberia in the era of enlightenment. 13 B. Zherebtsov wrote: “Political and economic bondage in old Siberia was combined with a terrifying cultural backwardness, even in comparison with Russia beyond the Urals of that time. In the old

Siberia until the 2nd half of the 19th century. there was no local social life, no literature, no theater. Cultural life was limited to extremely rare amateur performances, balls and military parades ... ".

Certain issues of the literary creativity of Siberians, the characteristics of their reading interests and the development of librarianship are considered in the works of M.N. Speransky, 3. Zhukov, G. Kungurova. 15 The latter, by the way, gave a very positive assessment of the activities of Siberian writers in the Catherine era, and was the first to analyze the materials of periodicals of that time. |6

In 1950 - 1953 E. A. Ashchepkov published two large monographs on Russian folk architecture in Siberia. 17 The author mainly examines the monuments of Russian architecture in Siberia, Konya of the 18th century. and later periods. At the same time, he characterizes the general line of change in architectural styles, the planning and development of cities and villages, and the specific features of the development of Russian architecture in Siberia. This was followed by a number of works on the history of Siberian architecture with a specific analysis of its individual historical stages in a particular region of Siberia, as well as on the work of local architects. In relation to the period under study, of these works, one can note the studies of B.I. Ogly, dedicated to the architecture of Irkutsk in the 18th - 19th centuries, V.I. Kochedamov about the architecture of Tobolsk and Tyumen. eighteen

In the 60s - early 80s. In the 20th century, scientists developed the question of the subject and tasks of studying the history of culture, as well as the very definition of "culture", in its own historical understanding. The importance of studying culture as an integral part of historical development was emphasized. During this period, many different works were published, both on the history of the culture of pre-revolutionary Russia and on the formation and prospects of Soviet culture.

Works by E.K. Romodanovskaya, published in the mid-1960s. devoted to the study of the reading circle of Siberians. In particular, Siberian literature and readers' interests of the population of Siberia in the 18th century were reflected in the article "New materials on the history of Siberian literature in the 18th century." In the study, the author cites samples of satirical epigrams, plays that were widespread in Siberia at the time we are studying. She noted that the Siberians were familiar with the literature that was distributed in the European part of Russia. 19

The issues of the cultural development of our region during the reign of Catherine II were summarized in one of the chapters of a 5-volume study on the history of Siberia, edited by A.P. Okladnikov, published in Leningrad in 1968. 20

In 1968, A.N. Kopylov, in a monograph dedicated to the culture of the Russian population of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries. 21 Thus, in accordance with the interpretations of Soviet historical science that had developed by that time, the author wrote: “... Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, the study of the culture of Siberia in the 17th-18th centuries. was in its infancy. Studies on certain issues of the region's culture in the form of essays, messages and notes, published in various pre-revolutionary publications, dealt mainly with private issues of the history of public education, as well as sketches from the history of icon painting, church libraries, book trade, publishing, church theater. In journalism and literary works, Siberia, for various reasons, was often portrayed as "an impenetrable wilderness, a land of savagery and ignorance."

A.N. Kopylov proposed to study the culture of the Russian population of Siberia, first of all, solving two problems: 1) to draw a concrete historical picture of the development of Russian culture in one of the major and important components

parts of the country and 2) to identify the specific features of the cultural process in a given territory. Of course, the works of this author contain generally accepted estimates, characteristic of the Soviet era. So, analyzing the historiography of studies on Siberian culture, Kopylov noted: “... Undoubtedly, tsarism stifled any advanced thought in Russia and hindered the development of the masses, which was especially pronounced in Siberia, which was looked upon as a source of enrichment for the royal treasury. and place of exile for political prisoners and criminals...”. 24 In the work “Essays on the cultural life of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries”, published in Novosibirsk in 1974, A.N. Kopylov gave a generalized description of different areas of the culture of feudal Siberia. He noted, in particular, that architectural creativity, pictorial and theatrical art, school education and other branches of Siberian culture were formed under the influence of various elements of North Russian, Central Russian and Ukrainian culture. A.N. Kopylov especially emphasized the importance of the powerful influence on the Siberian culture of the center of the country. 25

Received reflection in the literature of the study of the problems of cultural development in the Siberian village. These are the works of M.M. Gromyko, published in Novosibirsk in the 1970s. and dedicated to the Russian population of Western Siberia XVIII century, as well as several works by N.A. Minenko on the history of the Russian peasant family, which analyzes the issues of labor education, training of the peasantry, the role of the church in the cultural life and life of the village. In particular, she noted that enrollment in Uchilisha, opened by decree of Catherine II, was not limited by class boundaries, and therefore cases of enrollment in the Schools of peasants took place, although not in large volumes.

According to modern Siberian researcher - D.Ya. Rezuna, more attention awaits and the problem of studying urban culture. Note that D.Ya. Rezun is one of the co-authors of a book on construction

Siberian cities and their cultural significance from 17th century until the 1980s At present, he believes that here and in approaches to this problem, the class approach prevailed, when all culture was clearly divided into culture.

exploiters and exploited. "Describing the topographic descriptions of Siberian cities, D.Ya. Rezun noted that they necessarily had question questionnaires: "What are the sightseeing buildings in cities?" - according to the author, this is far from accidental, since in the 2nd half of the 18th century. Russian architectural tradition pays serious attention to the monuments of history and culture, trying to comprehend the Russian national style in the light of Western European trends. 29

Noteworthy is the judgment of D.Ya. Rezun that urban culture as a historical category is a consensus of different levels of cultural values ​​and skills that reflect certain aesthetic and material needs of various segments of the population, within which there is the possibility of moving up and down. In his opinion, it is necessary to distinguish between the following levels, layers of urban culture: officialdom etc.); "exchange-intelligent", reflecting the functions of different segments of the population associated with the exchange and transfer of technological, financial, moral and cultural values; "mass", within which the main category of urban philistines and raznochintsy lived and thought; "marginal" culture, associated primarily with various marginalized and lumpenized sections of the townspeople who do not have a clearly defined social niche of their own. thirty

In work G.F. Bykoni, dedicated to the Russian exempt population of Eastern Siberia in the 18th - early XIX century, published in 1985, archival information was published on the organization of public schools, the development of librarianship in the region. This work was continued by further study and publication of archival sources on the history of culture.

Krasnoyarsk, provided with detailed comments in the work "The City near Krasny Yar" and "History of Krasnoyarsk". 31

One of the characteristic features of the modern historiographic context is the appeal to the theoretical and methodological experience of domestic and foreign humanitarian thought.

There has been an interest in studying the provincial intelligentsia as a separate and specific object, in clarifying its role in the system of regional culture. The originality of the Siberian culture was also noted, consisting in the merging of flows coming from the "center" with local cultural traditions, which led to the formation of a special layer of culture. At the level of specialized - "industry" - studies, approaches to identifying the specific historical originality of the "local culture", taking into account its multifunctionality, have been identified.

Almost every region and region publishes almanacs, magazines, collections; in Barnaul, Omsk, Kemerovo, Irkutsk, recently Tomsk and Novosibirsk have advanced. The structure of the publications is varied, but there are attempts to move away from simplified models, to turn to the topic of asceticism, to place the figure of a local historian as a special type of cultural worker in the center. In our opinion, it is in these local experiments that the tendency towards real integration of scientific forces is most noticeable. The prospects of such a research model for the study of national culture as the history of the development of the culture of the Russian provinces became obvious. 32

The culture of Siberia is widely represented in popular science literature and local history publications of the museums of Tyumen, Tobolsk, Omsk, Kemerovo, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and other Siberian cities. All of the above indicates an increased interest in the problems of the historical and cultural heritage of Siberia and socio-cultural processes in the region. One of the most recent examples of moving towards a new model of studying the culture of the region

The emergence of a special journal "Culturological Research in Siberia". 33

In the 1980s - 90s. the problem of studying Siberian architecture remained popular. In the works of T.M. Stspanskaya, P.I. Lebedeva, K.Yu. Shumova, G.F. Bykoni, the history of the development of the cities of Western and Eastern Siberia is considered: Barnaul, Omsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk. The authors highlight the specifics of architectural structures characteristic of different urban centers of Siberia, pay attention to the religious and civil development of cities, the change of architectural styles in the 18th century. 34

Much attention at the present stage of the study of Siberian culture is paid to the educational sphere. Of the Siberian studies proper, it is worth noting the dissertation of L.V. Nechaeva "The formation of the education system and its influence on the Russian artistic culture of Western Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century." defended in 2004 in Tobolsk.^ In the same year, a work by I. Cherkazyanova dedicated to the school education of Russian Germans and the problem of the development and preservation of the German school in Siberia in the 18th - 20th centuries was published in St. Petersburg. The first chapter of this work discusses the formation of the first German schools in Siberia and the role of the German clergy in organizing the education of Siberians. 6

Modern Russian researchers are also studying social life, the adaptation of the Russian population in the conditions of the development of Siberia, the traditional consciousness of Siberians (O.N. Shelegina, A.I. Kupriyanov, O.N. Besedina, B.E. Andyusev). 37

Recently, there has been a marked increase in interest in the study of Russian culture in the context of the policy of enlightened absolutism. It is worth noting here, in particular, the latest collection "The Age of Enlightenment", which contains articles relating to various aspects of the cultural development of this era. "Moreover, the collection systematizes all the latest publications on the problem.

Often the history of cultural life was reduced to enumerating what had been achieved, and for the most part concerned the process of the emergence and accumulation of cultural monuments. This process is studied by the history of science, art, and literature. And here one cannot but agree with B.I. Krasnobaev, who noted back in the 70s. XX century. that the study of cultural development should cover somewhat different problems. These are questions of general culture, the history of the spread and distribution of cultural values, their development by the people, as well as the importance of the cultural factor in the development of society. Krasnobaev noted that it was in the 18th century, as a result of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism, that there was an intensive communication of various national cultures and peoples, as well as the interaction of various

European and Eastern peoples. Therefore, he emphasized, any culture

hell is fundamentally wrong to study as self-sufficiently closed;

The same question was raised by A.N. Kopylov, who wrote that the role of various disciplines in revealing the phenomenon of culture is not the same, and historical science is the only one that studies the process of cultural development in all its diversity, affecting not so much the creation of spiritual values ​​as the formation and use of the cultural potential of society. four "

The spiritual life of Siberia in the 2nd half of the eighteenth century is part of the so-called "new culture", which is characterized not only by secularism and the expansion of intercultural contacts, but also by the growing importance of the human person. People belonged to different classes and estates, lived both in the city and in the countryside, had different social status, and therefore some of them created, while others passively perceived culture, some could freely enjoy cultural values ​​and receive education, while others did not have this capabilities. To what extent did the policy of enlightened absolutism affect the Siberian region in the field of culture? How did the cultural processes of the Age of Enlightenment influence the general cultural level and education of Siberians?

The purpose of the work is a study of the cultural development of the Siberian region in the context of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. Tasks:

Consider the conditions for the development of the culture of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II,

To reveal the qualitative changes in the cultural, leisure and educational sphere that took place in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

To reveal the degree of influence of the ideas of education on the elite (noble) and mass (peasant) culture, to show changes in the ratio between traditional and innovative elements of culture in the region.

Determine how the material base of the cultural sphere contributed to its development.

As object The research focuses on the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, by which we mean, first of all, two layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: the noble (or secular) culture and the culture of the bulk of the population - religious, peasant.

Subject studies were the changes that occurred in the cultural sphere under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism and their impact on various strata of Siberian society.

Chronological framework cover the period 1762-1796. - the reign of Catherine II, the time of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism.

Territorial limits: As a result of the reform of local government, the government successively in 1782 and 1783 created the Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan governorships in Siberia. Western Siberia covered two of the three governorships - Tobolsk and part of Kolyvan. Eastern Siberia included the Irkutsk governorate and part of the Kolyvan. We consider it necessary to contrast Western Siberia with its center in Tobolsk, where noble culture prevailed, and Eastern Siberia with

center in Irkutsk, which gradually became the center of a new bourgeois culture. At the same time, the study gives priority to the culture of the Russian population, without analyzing the cultural life of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The specificity of the region was the presence of a huge economic potential, and its peripherality in relation to the European part of the country, with special natural-climatic and socio-cultural conditions.

Research methodology. The topic chosen for study requires substantiation of methodological principles. In our opinion, this topic is complex, and therefore requires study from the standpoint of different theoretical and methodological approaches, principles and methods.

Important for this study is civil approach, presented by N.Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, F. Braudel. Mentality, spirituality, interaction with other cultures were recognized as the main structural elements of civilization as "a single cultural-historical system in all manifestations, having an internal mechanism of functioning". Considering the problem of interaction between the German-Roman and Russian cultures, N.Ya. Danilevsky noted that as early as the beginning of the 18th century. Russian life was forcibly turned upside down in a European way. This process proceeded gradually, at first capturing only the upper layers, but little by little this distortion of Russian life began to spread in breadth and depth. In general, Danilevsky negatively assessed the cultural borrowings from the West that took place throughout the eighteenth century. Danilevsky called these borrowings "Europeanization", which was expressed in the distortion of folk life and the replacement of its forms with alien, foreign forms; in borrowing and planting various foreign institutions; in looking at internal and external relations and issues from a foreign, European point of view. Danilevsky believed that the nature of borrowings has an important influence on the merging of subordinate peoples with the dominant people. These nationalities retain their national forms of culture and way of life, but some of their representatives, going out into the open

general state life has always sought to adopt the living conditions of the upper classes of the ruling people. 41

The study of changes in the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of enlightened absolutism was carried out from the standpoint of appropocentric approach. This approach involves the study of the interests, needs, actions of people, the influence of culture on their daily lives. This approach was used in studying the cultural needs and cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population.

Formative approach has recently been seriously criticized because of the exaggeration of the role of the economic factor in the development of human society. However, it contains provisions that are interesting for this study. As noted, the fundamental provision for the period under study is the mutual influence of cultures. One of the Marxist theorists G.V. Plekhanov divided influence in the field of the spiritual life of society into one-sided and two-sided. “The influence is one-sided, when one people, due to its backwardness, cannot give anything to another ... This influence is mutual, when, due to the similarity of social life, and, consequently, cultural development, each of the two exchanging peoples can borrow something from the other.” 42 The culture of Enlightenment is a multilateral mutual contacts in the field of culture, which can be represented as kind of chain: Europe - central Russia - Siberia,

We consider it necessary to use the methodology in the dissertation dialogue of cultures, which was developed in the works of M.M. Bakhtin He noted that the dialogue is characterized by the unity of mutual understanding of its participants and the preservation by each of them of his position. 4 "Bakhtin noted, firstly, the synthesis of initial positions, their merging into one common one. Secondly, when "during the dialogical meeting of two cultures, they do not merge and do not mix, each retains its unity and open integrity, but they are mutually enriched. Thirdly, a situation is possible in which the dialogue leads, first of all, to an understanding of significant, fundamental differences.

initial settings, when the demarcation is greater, the better. With regard to the issue we are considering, the second situation took place, when the culture of Siberia came into contact with the European culture dominant in central Russia, while maintaining its originality and perceiving the best that the cultures of other peoples had accumulated. The intensity of the dialogue is directly dependent on the level of development of the parties, their culture, and the number of participants involved in it.

The theoretical basis for the study of culture was the work of culturologists B.S. Erasova, I.V. Kondakova, A.Ya. Fliera. 45 They concentrate the conceptual and categorical apparatus of cultural studies, which is necessary for understanding cultural processes, as well as generalize approaches to the analysis of the social functioning of culture. I.V. Kondakov, exploring the phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment, as well as N.Ya. Danilevsky, believed that cultural transformations affected only the "tops" - i.e. enlightened nobility, which not only did not lead to the unity of classes, but also deepened the gap between secular and traditional culture, between the "educated classes" and

"unenlightened mass".

The study was based on the general scientific principles of historicism and objectivity. The application of the first of them made it possible to consider the object of study in all its diversity and contradictions. The principle of objectivity made it possible to carry out a comprehensive and critical analysis of events and phenomena. Also, when writing a dissertation, comparative, logical, systemic methods were used.

source base research has compiled unpublished (archival) documents and published materials. One of the main sources were official documents - decrees of Catherine II, as well as periodicals, notes of foreigners about Siberia, etc.

The first group of sources were archival documents. We have studied the materials of the Tobolsk branch of the State Archive of the Tyumen

region (TF GATO), the State Archive of the Krasnoyarsk Territory (GAKK), the State Archive of the Irkutsk Region (GAIO).

One of the main sources for the development of the topic of this study was the materials stored in the TF GLTO. This can be explained by the fact that it was Tobolsk that was the center of the Siberian region at the time under study. Our attention was drawn to the fund of the Tobolsk spiritual consistory (F. 156), which contains information about the life and culture of the population. It was in the Tobolsk spiritual consistory that the main decrees, reports, promemoria, criminal cases flocked from all over Siberia, most of which relate to the religious, cultural, leisure, everyday, educational spheres of Siberian life. This allows us to judge the everyday life of different strata of the urban and rural population: nobles, officials, peasants, foreigners, Old Believers, etc.

The fund of the Tobolsk governorship (F. 341) also contains a number of materials on the problem under study. Basically, these are cases in pursuance of official government decrees. The fund of the Tobolsk order of public charity (F. I-355), which was in charge of schools, public institutions, hospitals, contains cases on the receipt of funds from the sale of books published in the Tobolsk printing house of the merchant Korniliev, estimates for the repair of the theater and other public institutions of the city. Except this in fund contains detailed information about the school reform and organization of the learning process in Siberian small public schools. Fund 661 (Decrees of the Tobolsk police chief office) contains decrees on the improvement of Tobolsk.

The AAACC studied the materials of the city hall fund (F. 122). Of interest were the minutes of the meetings of the town hall, as well as cases of collecting fines from peasants for evading confession and communion. The funds of the Tobolsk and Irkutsk spiritual consistories, kept in the AACCC (F. 812, 813), contain important materials for us about the construction of churches, the state of the parishes in terms of superstition. Turukhansky Trinity and Spassky Foundations

male monasteries (F. 594, 258) include materials on various aspects of culture - chronicle writing, book distribution, etc.

In the GAIO, we were primarily interested in the fund of the Irkutsk Spiritual Consistory (F, 50), which also contains information about the life and culture of the Siberian population.

Official documents were an important source. These are, first of all, the decrees of Catherine II in the field of culture, the provisions of which extended to the territory of Siberia; Decree on the regulation of city plans (1768), decree on the establishment of the "Free Russian Assembly", which was engaged in the publication of literary, historical works and research work in the field of language and literature (1771), decree on free printing houses (1783), Decree of the Commission on the establishment of Main and Small Public Schools (1786), decrees on the development of the theater, book business in Russia, etc. (Decrees of Catherine II (1767-86). In addition, some information about the regulation of public life and control on the implementation of religious norms, we gleaned from the Charter of the Deanery (police charter) of Catherine II, published in 1782.

A significant amount of material was taken from published sources. All materials used can be divided into several genres: news reports, scientific and educational articles, travel notes. First of all, the information contained in periodicals of Siberia in the 80s - 90s. 18th century The study of the materials of the journals "The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene" (IPI) and "Scientific, Historical, Economic Library ..." makes it possible to judge the development of some aspects of the cultural and leisure activities of Siberian residents, about the issues that were of interest to readers at that time, and rose on the pages of publications.

When we mention travel notes, we mean, first of all, the notes of Russian and foreign citizens who visited Siberia for various purposes. These are political prisoners, scientists, travelers who

left their impressions in the travel descriptions. In these materials, one can also borrow information about everyday life, the cultural image of Siberian cities and population. These descriptions often formed a certain view on the development of Siberian culture and life among Russian historians.

An interesting source was the published letters of A.N. Radishchev from Tobolsk, addressed to A.R. Vorontsov. They contain interesting observations and author's assessments regarding Siberian life and culture. 47 Of the travel observations of foreign citizens, one should single out the notes of E. Laxman, P. Pallas, translated by V. Lagus, and published in St. Petersburg in 1890. 48 In the 60s. 20th century work on summarizing and systematizing the notes of foreign citizens about Siberia was continued. So, the researcher E.P. Zinner in his work "Siberia in the news of Western European travelers and scientists of the XVIII century." collected notes by August Kotzebue, Johann Ludwig Wagner, Abbot Chappe d "Otrosh. 49 E.P. Zinner published in his collection only a small excerpt from Chappe d" Otrosh's Journey to Siberia. Only in 2005 did the remarkable edition of the French researcher Helene Carrer d'Encausse appear under the title The Empress and the Abbot. An unpublished literary duel between Catherine II and Abbé Chappe d'Otroche. 50 This edition contains a translation not only of the Frenchman's own notes, but also a translation of the famous refutation - "Antidote", the authorship of which, not without reason, is attributed to Catherine II. In particular, E. Carrer d "Encausse cites in a note the arguments on this subject by the historian A.N. Pypin, the greatest expert on the Catherine's era of the early 20th century. If so, then we have the opportunity to evaluate the views of the empress on the life, customs and culture of Siberians, contrary to the opinion that "the attention of the government did not turn to Siberia at all."

Of undoubted interest were the published documents of the Siberian archives contained in the Krasnoyarsk publications “The City near Krasny Yar: Documents and materials on the history of Krasnoyarsk XVII- XVIII centuries”, compiled by G.F. Bykoney and L.P. Shorokhov, and reprinted and

supplemented edition "History of Krasnoyarsk: Documents and materials of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries" G.F. Bykoni, as well as in the collection "Monuments of history and culture of the Krasnoyarsk Territory" edited by G.L. Ruksha. In addition, some published documents and materials from the State Archive of the Altai Territory were taken from the 1999 textbook on regional studies "Culture in Altai in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries."

A peculiar source was the publication of documents in the complex of pre-revolutionary periodicals of literary and local history publications of the 19th - early 20th centuries: "Siberian Archive", "Siberian Questions", "Literary Collection", published in the edition of "East Siberian Review". These publications often included short sketches of the cultural and everyday life of ancient Siberia.

The combination of sources made it possible to analyze the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of enlightened absolutism.

Scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time the object of a special historical study was the changes in the culture of the Siberian region during the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. To cover this topic, a cultural approach was used. New archival materials have been introduced into scientific circulation.

The practical significance of the work. Generalizations and factual material of the dissertation can be used in the creation of generalizing works on the history of Siberia, in training courses on local history, museum practice.

Government cultural policy

Under the conditions of cultural development, we understand the specific historical situation that contributed to the formation and change of individual branches of culture, under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism, and also contributed to the familiarization of representatives of Siberian society with the new culture.

Enlightened absolutism is a policy that was put into practice at a time when the flaws of the feudal system, which was becoming obsolete, became obvious. The theoretical foundations of this policy were developed in the works of European enlighteners - Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, D. Alembert, Rousseau and others. The ideas of the Enlightenment were to some extent shared by many monarchs of the middle and 2nd half of the 18th century. Catherine II, who ascended the throne in 1762, was one of them. The doctrine of the policy of enlightened absolutism was expressed in the spread of the liberal ideas of European enlighteners, the reform of social relations on the basis of "general equality", the enlightenment of the nation, and the patronage of the sciences and arts.

The traditional view of the policy of enlightened absolutism in the Catherine's era was limited to the analysis of normative acts, and in particular the favorite "brainchild" of Catherine II - "Instruction". This allowed some historians to conclude that enlightened absolutism existed until the mid-70s. XVIII century, and after the uprising led by E.I. Pugachev's empress, abandoning the ideals of the Enlightenment, began to pursue a conservative course. But we agree with those researchers of the reign of Catherine II who consider it fundamental to consider not only political actions, but also those measures that were taken by the Empress and were aimed at improving human nature, as the policy of enlightened absolutism. Thanks to these measures, it was possible to achieve striking cultural achievements associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. Catherine II continued the cultural undertakings of her predecessors - Peter I, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. As an enlightened monarch, Catherine II naturally considered herself the patroness of the arts and sciences, actively contributing to the development of the cultural sphere. During her reign, many branches of culture flourished. These changes affected Siberia most directly.

Researchers note that at the first stage of the settlement of Siberia, the formation of a cadre of literate people, architects, and public figures was staffed by newcomers from the European part of the country.1 However, at the beginning of the 18th century, Siberian own specialists appeared. During the reign of Catherine II in Siberia, the number of public figures, progressive people of their time, who were the bearers of a new secular culture, supporters of public education, increased. From that time on, the history of the culture of Siberia became closely connected with the history of the culture of the European part of Russia; all official documents introducing cultural innovations extended to the Siberian region.

In accordance with the doctrine of the enlightenment of the nation, the reign of Catherine II was characterized by the rise in the organizational activity of many prominent scientists and cultural figures, which was aimed at creating a number of educational institutions. Much attention was paid to the education of the younger generation. The empress herself drew attention to this in her “Instruction.”2 A special commission prepared a draft of new legislation, and the issue of expanding education, including among peasant children, was repeatedly discussed. As a result of this activity, in the second half of the 18th century, a whole system of secular schools was created to train specialists in various fields of science, technology, art, and education.

On August 5, 1786, the Charter on the opening of the Main and Small Public Schools was approved by the highest. It was extended without changes to Siberia. During 1789-1790. 13 public schools were organized on the territory of Siberia: 3 Main - in Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Barnaul and 10 Small - in Tyumen, Turinsk, Tara, Tomsk, Kuznetsk, Narym, Krasnoyarsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, Verkhneudinsk, most of them were located in Western Siberia and was part of the Tobolsk province.

The patronage of sciences and arts, and as a result - their distribution and development, was also put in a number of priority tasks during the reign of Catherine II. Therefore, much attention was paid to the education of creative abilities, cultural needs of the individual. This led to the intensive development of literature, periodicals, theater and book business. In the development of these industries, on the one hand, continuity with the traditions of the time of Peter I affected, on the other hand, new trends in the political, social, literary and artistic spheres of activity were taken into account. One of them was acquaintance with foreign literature, which was associated with the rapidly developing countries of Western Europe. However, the flow of books from abroad did not prevent the increase in publications of domestic literature. The first private printing houses appeared in St. Petersburg in 1769. The Decree "On Free Printing Houses" was issued in 1783. It initiated the opening of private printing houses in many Russian cities. In Siberia, the first printing houses appear in Irkutsk (1785) and Tobolsk (1789).

Under the influence of Russian and European literature, theatrical art also developed in the 2nd half of the 18th century. The beginning of this process was laid in Yaroslavl, where in the middle of the century F.G. Volkov created the first Russian professional public theater. During the reign of Catherine II, amateur theaters appeared in many Russian cities, including Siberian ones. Russian theatrical culture in Siberia went through the same stages of formation and development as in European Russia.

The Age of Enlightenment was characterized by a change in people's attitudes towards the Church. And, above all, this change affected the cultural sphere. I. Kondakov noted that secularization divided the previously unified Russian culture into "proper culture" and "faith."4 Russia's familiarization with the cultural values ​​of Western European civilization was contradictory and ambiguous. Patriarchy - on the one hand, and a decisive breakup of old institutions - on the other. However, the influence of the church on cultural development and secular life in European Russia in the period under study was significantly limited.

However, a feature of the era of enlightenment in Siberia is the significant influence of the church on all cultural processes. Time itself assumed a close interweaving of the secular and spiritual areas of culture. In European Russia, in the era under study, the influence of the church on secular culture is weakening, which cannot be said about Siberia. The church continued to play an important role here and influenced not only cultural processes, but also the daily life of Siberians.

Siberian cities as centers of cultural development

The economic originality of the Siberian cities and their various historical destinies also determined the originality of the cultural life in Siberia. In this regard, certain cultural centers arose. Two large cities of Siberia, Tobolsk and Irkutsk, especially attracted the attention of contemporaries. In the eyes of later historians, Tobolsk was a symbol of old Siberia, while a new culture was maturing in Irkutsk.

The first thing that foreigners who visited Siberian cities paid attention to was the urban structure - the architectural appearance, undoubtedly, was distinguished by a certain color, the condition of the streets and public institutions. Although the sources contain fragmentary images of many Siberian cities (Okhotsk, Mangazeya, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk, Tyumen) and their inhabitants, the two largest cities of Siberia of that time, Tobolsk and Irkutsk, most often became the objects of description.

In 1768, a book was published in Paris under the intriguing for European readers of the 2nd half of the 18th century. titled "Journey to Siberia". It was written by a member of the French Academy of Sciences, Abbé Chappe d'Otroche, who visited Russia and traveled to Tobolsk to conduct astronomical observations. In many ways, Chappe d'Autroche was negatively disposed toward Russia. Not surprisingly, in Journey to Siberia, he acted as an active distributor of many anti-Russian stereotypes and myths designed to create a negative image of Russia in Western public opinion and thereby justify its aggressiveness towards Russia. Here is the testimony of Chapp d'Otrosh about Tobolsk, the largest city in Siberia at that time: “... the houses in the city are all wooden and built very poorly. It is difficult to walk down the street even in the high part of the city because of the great dirt...”9

Johann Ludwig Wagner is a German exiled to Siberia for the political crime of espionage. His stay in Siberia lasted several years, and ended in November 1763. By this time, the testimony of Tobolsk dates back, in which Wagner, like Abbé Chappe, notes that “... Tobolsk is a big city, but not beautiful. All streets are paved with logs. There are many swampy and wild places in the city... All buildings are made of wood, with the exception of most of the beautiful churches in the city under the mountain and the residence of the archbishop, built of stone...”.10

However, not all foreigners were so categorical and aggressive. A different picture was seen by those who entered into closer ties with the population. These are scientists: the naturalist Eric Laxman, a Finn who lived for a long time in Irkutsk, was a pastor of the Lutheran parish of the Kolyvano-Voskresensky mines, was elected a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1781 was a mining councilor in Nerchinsk; Peter Simon Pallas, invited by Catherine II as an adjunct of the Academy of Sciences, who published the notes “Travels in different provinces of the Russian state in 1768-1774”; the correspondent of Pallas is the Frenchman Patren; Johann Gottlieb Georgi - a member of the Pallas expedition since 1768, after returning to St. Petersburg, he published his notes; Johann Sievers - botanist, member of the Academy of Sciences and the Free Economic Society, who traveled a lot in Siberia; the Mongolist Ierig, the English travelers Billings, Ledyard, Lesseps, Sivere, and others. Thus, not all foreigners were negatively disposed towards the Siberian cities and their inhabitants. Those who came into closer contact with the culture and life of the Siberians found a lot of positive phenomena in them. In addition, it is important to note that often foreigners who lived permanently in Russia were appointed by the Empress to leadership positions in places, including Siberia, and often made a significant contribution to the development of the cultural sphere of the area they ruled.

Transformation of the education system

The mental life of Siberian cities in Catherine's time, as well as the cultural level as a whole, seemed to many contemporaries and historians to be very primitive: , of course, was still unthinkable ... "- the historian noted.1 Often the statement about the" amazing ignorance, illiteracy and complete lack of education" of Siberians. However, it appears to be controversial. Education is the most important indicator of the general culture of people. In particular, this applies to people of the 18th century, because at that time, in such a remote region from the center, education testified to a certain cultural level of each of them.

As you know, in Siberia, as, indeed, throughout Russia, all educational institutions were divided into spiritual and secular. In general, throughout the XVIII century. the network of educational institutions of a secular nature in the region expanded. Before Catherine II carried out the school reform in 1786, there were various types of schools in Siberia.

Under different names (Cossack, military-orphan departments, etc.) there were garrison schools in Siberia: Omsk, Petropavlovsk, Biysk (for 450 students), Yamyshevskaya, Tobolsk. The latter could accommodate 500 students, but in 1772 it had 173 students, and in 1796 - 200 people. In some places, schools of a higher level arose on the basis of the garrison ones. In the center of the Siberian Cossack army - Omsk in the 60s of the XVIII century. from children who graduated from garrison schools, translators and interpreters were trained, and with an engineering team - draftsmen and cartographers. In 1789, at the same military orphanage department, the so-called Asian school was opened here to train translators and interpreters of the Tatar, Kalmyk, Mongolian and Manchu languages.

Such a school also existed in Irkutsk, as evidenced by a letter from the Irkutsk governor F. Klichka about sending capable students from the Tobolsk Theological Seminary to study the Mongolian and Chinese languages, in order to then assign them to the position of translators. It was also pointed out that people appointed to the position of translators can make a career by reaching the officer ranks. "This letter was forwarded to the Tobolsk governor D.I. Chicherin, who in turn turned to Bishop Varlaam. It is possible that the students of the Tobolsk Theological Seminary reluctantly agreed Only one petition from seminary student Yefim Strelbitsky has been preserved in the file, asking him to be allowed to go to Irkutsk to study Oriental languages, but with the condition of returning back at his own expense if he does not like it there.4

Another surviving case is about the appointment of seminarians who wish to study medical and surgical science as medical students. The place where they wanted to place the students was not indicated. It is known that the training of medical personnel began in Siberia as early as the middle of the 18th century. Head physician Abram Eshke, who was appointed in 1751 to the position of Chief physician of the Kolyvano-Voskresensky mountain district, was instructed to open a medical school at the Barnaul hospital, modeled on the schools at the Moscow and Petersburg hospitals. A truly medical school in Barnaul began to function in 1758, when Nikita Grigoryevich Nozhevshchikov, one of the outstanding physicians of Russia in the 18th century, assumed the duties of the Chief Physician. However, there were not enough medical personnel, there was a constant need for students. In 1788, by decree of the Empress, it was ordered to find those who wanted to become the doctor's apprentices. The reports of the rector of the seminary, Archimandrite Gennady, state that none of the students agreed to enter medical and surgical science, despite the fact that the decree was announced in the classes.6

In addition, the first educational institutions of a technical profile appear in Siberia. These include geodetic schools, which are close in their program to navigation schools.

In Western Siberia, in the style of the Ural mining schools in Barnaul, a combined verbal and arithmetic school was created with a mining specialization. Documents show that the Barnaul School of Literature was housed in a house consisting of three chambers (rooms) with three brick ovens and twelve windows. The list of students compiled by S.A. Shelkovnikov for the September third of 1759, indicates that the school had 37 students aged 5 to 14 years. These were the children of clerks and artisans. The academic year lasted all 12 months, subdivided into thirds, 4 months each. After a third of the year and for the whole year, a report was submitted to the Office, which reported information about the composition of students, their age, the time they entered school, and the disciplines of study. Children were in school for 6-7 years, and sometimes more. When a student turned 14-15 years old, he was immediately "assigned to the service." Those who did not show due success in their studies were expelled from school much earlier, and from the age of 12-13 they worked in production. Despite the fact that the period of study at school was long, the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities was given very small.

Life and culture of Siberia 17-20 century.

LIFE AND CULTURE OF SIBERIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY

The formation of Siberian culture took place on the basis of the feudal socio-economic relations that developed in the vast region. The results of this process, in turn, influenced the appearance and level of development of Siberian society. The process of cultural adaptation had features for all Siberians and manifested itself in a special way for each social stratum.

Intercultural interaction touched the tools of labor. The newcomers borrowed a lot from the natives from the tools of hunting and fishing, and the natives, in turn, began to make extensive use of tools for agricultural labor. Borrowings from both sides manifested themselves to varying degrees in the dwellings under construction, in outbuildings, in household items and clothing. For example, in the lower reaches of the Irtysh and Ob, Russian residents borrowed coats, parkas, reindeer fur shoes, and much more from the Nenets and Khanty. The mutual influence of different cultures also took place in the spiritual sphere, to a lesser extent - in the early stages of the development of Siberia, to a much greater extent - starting from the 17th century. We are talking, in particular, about the assimilation of some phenomena of the religiosity of the indigenous population by newcomers, on the one hand, and about the Christianization of the natives, on the other.

There is a great similarity of the Cossack life with the life of the indigenous population. And domestic relations brought the Cossacks very close to the natives, in particular, to the Yakuts. Cossacks and Yakuts trusted and helped each other. The Yakuts willingly lent their kayaks to the Cossacks, helped them in hunting and fishing. When the Cossacks had to leave for a long time on business, they handed over their cattle to their Yakut neighbors for preservation. Many local residents who converted to Christianity themselves became service people, they had common interests with Russian settlers, and a close way of life was formed.

Mixed marriages of newcomers with native women, both baptized and remaining in paganism, acquired a mass character. It should be borne in mind that the church treated this practice with great disapproval.

Local culture, as already mentioned, undoubtedly influenced the culture of Russians. But the influence of Russian culture on the native was much stronger. And this is quite natural: the transition of a number of indigenous ethnic groups from hunting, fishing and other primitive crafts to agriculture meant not only an increase in the level of technological equipment of labor, but also an advance towards a more developed culture.

Of course, the process of mutual influence of cultures was complicated. The tsarist regime, with its colonial policy, to a certain extent restrained the cultural development of the Siberian population, both newcomers and natives. But the features of the social structure that existed in Siberia: the absence of landownership, the restriction of monastic claims to exploit the peasantry, the influx of political exiles, the settlement of the region by enterprising people - stimulated its cultural development. The culture of the aborigines was enriched at the expense of the Russian national culture. The literacy of the population increased, albeit with great difficulty. In the 17th century, literate people in Siberia were mainly people of clergy. However, there were literate people among the Cossacks, fishermen, merchants and even peasants. Despite the limited cultural development in Siberia, the foundation was laid for the further spiritual enrichment of its inhabitants, which began to manifest itself more fully from the next, 18th century.

LIFE AND CULTURE OF SIBERIA: IN THE 18TH CENTURY

Being engaged in agriculture, in different regions of Siberia, the peasants changed the traditional Russian agricultural technology, taking into account the state of the soil, climate, local traditions, and the accumulated experience in the development of nature. Somewhere a wooden plow was used, and there were its regional varieties, in other cases improvements were made to the plow, it approached the plow, and the plow, as you know, is a more productive tool than the plow. Purely local agricultural implements were also used.

The same can be said about housing: buildings in Western and Eastern Siberia, in the northern and southern regions had their own specifics. On the outskirts of Siberia, in the Far East, and especially in the lower reaches of the Kolyma, the temporary dwellings of Russians in the haunts differed little from the huts of the natives.

As the alien population took root, a street layout of the settlement appeared, designed for a long, and perhaps permanent life in them. The construction technique of "cutting" houses was worked out. The type of dwelling was functionally determined: it had a “svetlitsa” (room) and a “strep” (kitchen room), connected by an entrance hall. Initially, this type of dwelling appears in Western Siberia, and then spreads to the east and north. F.P. Wrangel, for example, described the two-chamber dwelling of the Kolyma people. In these houses, in summer, the windows were covered with fish bubbles, and in winter they were covered with ice floes. In the arrangement, elements adopted from the natives were used: a Yakut chuval instead of a Russian stove, deer skins.

Houses were cut, as a rule, from two "cages" connected to each other. At first, dwellings were built without decorations, and then they began to decorate platbands, cornices, gates, gates and other elements of the house. Over time, the dwelling became more harmonious, comfortable for living. Covered yards were found in different regions of Siberia, which was very convenient for the owners. Cleanliness and order were maintained in the houses of Siberian old-timers, which testifies to a rather high everyday culture of this category of settlers.

Many settlers wore both traditional Russian outerwear and local ones, for example, the national Buryat "ergach". In the Kolyma, underwear and outerwear made of reindeer fur were very popular among the settlers.

Russian people adopted from the natives and successfully used elements of the local culture of fishing, hunting, and cattle breeding. In turn, the influence of everyday stereotypes of Russians on the life of the natives was great. There is evidence that the Lower Ob Khanty bought flour, linen, fur coats, colored cloth, iron axes, knives, spears, arrows, traps for catching animals, flint, copper and iron cauldrons, hemp, red skins from the Russians.

By the end of the 18th century, the Mansi adopted the Russian way of life, they began to speak Russian. Evenks and Evens paid yasak mainly in money, and the policy of Christianization provided that newly baptized from the natives were exempted for three years from; payment of yasak and other taxes.

F.P. Wrangel noted that the Yukaghirs "from continuous relations with the Russians" adopted their way of life, type of clothing and arrangement of huts. The houses of the Yukaghirs are built of logs, they usually have one spacious room. The clothes of the Yukagirs are completely similar to the clothes of the Russians living here. Most of them use Russian. The “foreigners” of the Vogul tribe live mixed with Russian peasants and, therefore, differ little from them in their way of life and way of life. They are more and more

engage in agriculture and move to a settled life. Yurts

many of them are as comfortable as average-income houses

state peasants with whom they communicate. The Aleuts also began to use tools borrowed from the Russians, firearms, began to build log houses, etc. But at the same time, they also preserved traditional dwellings, the famous leather boats (kayaks), and fishing clothes.

Under the influence of the Russians, social relations began to change: the tribal community began to collapse.

Until the beginning of the 18th century, there were no schools in Siberia; children and youth were taught by private teachers. But they were few, their sphere of influence is limited. Some of the wisdom of education comprehended "self-taught", as, for example, Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov. This man remained in the memory of Siberians as an outstanding cultural figure. He owns a work on the history of Siberia - the Remezov Chronicle. The peculiarity of this chronicle is the use of elements of a scientific approach. Remezov also compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia" - a geographical atlas of 23 maps.

The children of the clergy were taught elementary literacy, i. read, write and sing church services. At the beginning of the 18th century, around 1705, a joyful event took place in Siberia: the first church theater was created in Tobolsk. The merit in its creation belongs to Metropolitan Leshchinsky.

In the 20s of the 18th century, the theological school in Tobolsk was already quite active. In 1725, a theological school was established in Irkutsk at the Ascension Monastery, and in 1780, the second seminary in Siberia was opened in this city.

Theological schools also trained personnel for civil institutions. Schools had libraries with books, including rare ones, manuscripts and other treasures of spiritual culture. The missionary activity of the church played an important role in the spread of culture. There was also an appropriate legal basis for such activities - the decree of Metropolitan Philotheus, issued in 1715. Missionaries were prepared from the children of the Khanty and Mansi. Subsequently, dozens of other missions set up similar schools with hundreds of students. Thus, the Church, to some extent, achieved the achievement of its educational goals. But these schools were not very viable, many of them, having existed for a very short time, were closed.

Secular educational institutions appeared mainly later than spiritual ones, although there were exceptions: the digital school in Tobolsk opened in the first quarter of the 17th century. It had about 200 students.

Garrison schools were also organized, in which they studied literacy, military affairs and crafts. Translators and interpreters were trained: the first - for written, and the second - for oral translation from Russian and into Russian. Vocational schools were also opened, among them - factory, navigation, geodetic. There were also medical schools. Since the end of the 18th century, public schools have been opened in Siberia. In the Irkutsk and Tobolsk schools, along with other subjects, a number of languages ​​were also studied. In the Irkutsk school, these were Mongolian, Chinese and Manchu languages, and in Tobolsk - also Tatar.

Everything that extends beyond the Ural Mountains to the east, the entire northern territory of the Asian continent, many of our compatriots, and especially foreigners, call Siberia. The idea of ​​it objectively reflects its harsh nature and climate: these are snows, bitter frosts, endless taiga, impassability, settlements scattered far from each other.

But Siberia has many faces: it is also the land of eternal ice in Yamal and Taimyr, the boundless tundra along the Arctic Ocean, the steppes of Khakassia and Tuva, the Altai Mountains, priceless lakes - Baikal, Teletskoye, Kuchinskoye and Kulundinskoye. The ancient cities - Tomsk, Tobolsk, Tyumen, Irkutsk, Chita, Nerchinsk - have been preserved and are being transformed; completely new ones were built - Bratsk, Nadym, Novy Urengoy, Ob, Nefteyugansk.

Siberia as a region within Russia took shape during the 16th - 18th centuries, although already at an earlier time, namely in the 14th - 15th centuries. Novgorod ushkuiniki undertook expeditions “beyond the Stone” (beyond the Urals) in order to obtain furs, walrus tusk, skins, etc. Nevertheless, the systematic advance of the Russian people to Siberia begins after the formation of the Russian centralized state in the middle - second half of the 16th century.

The culture of Siberia was formed on the basis of the interaction of Russian culture, the carriers of which were representatives of the Russian ethnic group, who gradually colonized the watersheds of the Siberian rivers and, on the other hand, the natives of Siberia, belonging to the Finno-Ugric and Turkic ethno-linguistic groups.

In the process of this interaction, a certain specificity was revealed, which is characteristic of the entire cultural space of Russia. Its essence lay in the ability of Russian people to find a common language with representatives of various ethnic and religious groups, without bringing differences and even local conflicts to irreconcilable antagonisms. In this regard, one can state an amazing coincidence of the Russian national character and state policy: the Russian people did not experience colonial arrogance towards the autochthons, and the central and local administrations never had the goal of genocide of the local population in the name of liberating territories or momentary enrichment.

Mixed marriages with a rather flexible policy of Christianization of the Siberian peoples created favorable conditions for the coexistence and further development of Russian and local ethnic cultures with their partial mutual influence. The main centers of Russian culture in Siberia at present are large cities: Tyumen, Tobolsk, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, etc. The Russian village culture of Siberia is largely an ethnographic relic due to the all-Russian processes of depopulation of the Russian village during the beginning of the XXI century.

The very name "Siberia" is known in sources from the 5th - 6th centuries. and was originally an ethnonym for a group of Finno-Ugric peoples (the “Shibi” peoples in Chinese sources), which, being forced out by the Mongolo-Tatars to the north and partially assimilated by them, gave the name to a whole vast region. In Russian sources, the name "Siberia" is first encountered as a toponym in 1483. originally as a city and locality in the lower reaches of the river. Tobol. As the Russian explorers moved east, more and more new territories were included in the concept of Siberia up to Baikal.

The modern geographical division implies under Siberia the territory from Tyumen in the west to the border of the Khabarovsk region in the east, from the Taimyr Peninsula in the north to the borders with Mongolia and China in the south. The area of ​​Siberia is about 10 million km2.

Most of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the federal highway M53 "Moscow - Vladivostok" pass through Southern Siberia. It is quite natural that most of the cities, economic and tourist facilities, as well as the population, are grouped along these highways.

The autochthonous population of Siberia belongs mainly to the Turkic (Evenks, Yakuts, Tatars) and Finno-Ugric groups of peoples (Khanty, Mansi). By the time the Russians began to move into Siberia (XV - XVI centuries), the social system of these peoples was predominantly at the pre-state stage, which left its mark on their cultural development. To date, we are not aware of any significant monuments of the monumental culture of local peoples created before the arrival of the Russians. The main examples of autochthonous culture are works of mythology and folklore, monuments of funerary culture and arts and crafts. This does not at all indicate any inability of certain ethnic groups to certain types of cultural creativity. Just the creation of significant monuments of architecture, painting, sculpture and classical literature always and necessarily requires a differentiated and complex social stratification, concentration and management of public resources, etc.

The world's largest hydroelectric power plants operate in Siberia - Sayano-Shushenskaya, Krasnoyarskaya, Bratskaya, Ust-Ilimskaya, which provide energy and light for the Urals, the Volga region and the entire European region of the Russian Federation. The Siberian Territory is rich in original material and spiritual culture of indigenous peoples and millions of migrants who have become old-timers.

Currently, representatives of more than 100 ethnic groups live in the vast Siberian expanses. The peculiarity of ethnic geography is that there are many nationalities, but their numbers are small and they settled in separate villages over a vast territory. Another difficulty is that people belonging to the same language group speak different dialects, which makes communication difficult. According to the linguistic principle, the peoples of Siberia are divided into groups. The Finno-Ugric group includes the Khanty and Mansi living in the interfluve of the Ob and Yenisei. Scientists believe that the Mansi and Khanty are relics of the once powerful ethnic group Sybir (Sibir), which served as the name of the Siberia region. The language of the Samoyedic group is spoken by the Nenets, Nganasans and Selkups, who inhabit the tundra west of the Khatanga River and the taiga part of the Ob-Yenisei interfluve.

The Mongolian-speaking peoples include the Buryats, who occupy most of the Republic of Buryatia and two autonomous regions. The languages ​​of the Tungus-Manchurian group are spoken by Evenks, Evens, Negidals, Nanais, Ulchis, Orochs and Udeges, living from the Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean and from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the southern borders of Siberia. Paleo-Asiatic languages ​​are spoken by the Nivkhs living in the lower reaches of the Amur and Keta - in the basin of the middle reaches of the Yenisei. The Altaic group of languages ​​is spoken by the Altaians, Khakasses, Shors, Tofs, and Tuvans living in the mountains of Southern Siberia. According to cultural and economic characteristics, the peoples are divided into two groups: cattle-breeding and agricultural (the main part of the Yakuts, Buryats and all the peoples of Southern Siberia) and the so-called small peoples of the North, mainly engaged in reindeer herding, hunting and fishing. Evens and Evenks are hereditary reindeer herders, they use reindeer for riding (their name is “reindeer riders”).

The south of Siberia is the most populated part of it. There are many representatives of European ethnic groups - Russians, Ukrainians, as well as indigenous Asian peoples. Their modern appearance was influenced by the centuries-old mixture of local and alien tribes. For example, the Buryats were formed as a result of a mixture of local tribes of Mongolian, Samoyed, Tungus and Turkic origin and newcomer Mongolian tribes. The mixture of features of many tribes was reflected in the Khakass, Altaians and Shors living to the west of the Buryats. Among the men of Southern Siberia there were professional hunters, and the Buryats were engaged in commercial fishing, catching omul and seals on Baikal. But certain crafts (for example, the Buryats, Tuvans, Khakasses, and especially the Shors were skilled blacksmiths) have survived to this day.

About 19.5 million people live in the Siberian Federal District, of which the urban population makes up the majority - more than 13.89 million inhabitants. Russians make up 88% of the population of Siberia, indigenous people of Siberia - about 4%, other nationalities - 8% (among them Germans, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ukrainians, Poles, Jews). According to cultural and economic characteristics, the indigenous people are divided into cattle-breeding and agricultural (the main part of the Yakuts, Buryats and all the peoples of the south of Siberia) and the so-called small peoples of the North, mainly engaged in reindeer herding, hunting and fishing.

Khanty and Mansi occupy a vast territory in the northwestern part of Siberia, mainly along the left bank of the Ob. In addition to the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, a significant number of them live within the Tyumen region. Their total number in Russia is more than 40 thousand. human. The number of Yakuts is about 400 thousand people. Evenks number up to 30 thousand people. The areas of original residence of the Evenks are the north of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, the areas adjacent to the Yenisei, the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk and the Baikal region; Yakuts - the basins of the Lena, Kolyma, Indigirka, Yana rivers. Almost each of the titular peoples has its own autonomous entity within the Russian Federation.

The traditional occupations of the Khanty and Mansi, as well as the Evenks, Yakuts, Nenets and other peoples of Siberia, were hunting and fishing, in which they achieved amazing skill. At the same time, these occupations, as a way of subsistence, imposed severe restrictions on the demographic growth of the indigenous Siberian peoples, since the maximum resource potential of the feeding landscape was small. At the same time, the Siberian natives for a long time remained at the stage of the Stone Age: the main materials for the manufacture of tools, weapons and household utensils for a long time were stone, bone and wood. Acquaintance with metal and methods of its processing occurred when meeting with nomads, or, later, with Russian settlers.

The traditional beliefs of the Khanty, Mansi, Evenks, Yakuts, Nenets and other Siberian ethnic groups are various variations and synthesis of animism, shamanism and paganism. The common religious idea for most of these tribes is the belief in the original animation and rationality of the surrounding world. Hence the belief in the possibility of intelligent contacts with natural elements, trees, stones, animals and herbs. A significant part of folklore traditions and legends revolves around this belief. At the same time, ideas about the gods remained at an intermediate stage between belief in spirits and in clearly personified deities with individual features and characters. It can be said that Siberian pagan beliefs have not reached the level of clearly formulated anthropomorphism. Idols of deities, made of stone, bone and wood, most often lack specific features. The rituals of worshiping them, as well as the most revered natural object, most often represent the sacrifice of part of the prey without any complex cult and ceremonial actions.

However, there are some exceptions. A very specific character, for example, is the Khanty-Mansiysk legend about the "golden woman", who appears in various legends as the most significant deity of the local pantheon. During the XIX - XX centuries. repeated attempts were made to find the very statue of the “golden woman” - both by professional scientists and treasure hunters, but all of them were unsuccessful. There is an opinion that the Khanty and Mansi themselves jealously protect their shrine from strangers, since the well-being of local residents is associated with it, while misfortune, illness and death await the sacrilegious who dared to touch the statue.

The shamanism of the Siberian peoples seems to be much more developed and scientifically developed. Shamanism, in its essence, is the invocation of a spirit by a person inside himself. In the process of the rite of ritual, a short-term infusion of the spirit into a person takes place. It is the spirit that speaks through the mouth of the shaman, utters prophecies and casts out diseases. Thus, we are presented with occultism with a pronounced pragmatic bias. At the same time, from the point of view of Orthodoxy, shamanism is a clear evidence of the influence of diabolical forces on a person, protection from which can only be the Orthodox Sacraments. This explains the rather irreconcilable actions of church hierarchs in relation to local pagan beliefs - it was about the salvation of human souls for Eternity. Also in the beliefs of the Siberian peoples, traces of totemism can be found. Supernatural properties with some features of the first ancestor were endowed with the most significant animals: bears, wolves, reindeer. In many myths, traces of belief in werewolf can be found. Animals act in both positive and negative contexts: they can help virtuous people, protect them, bestow wealth, but they can also harm them, or punish the greedy and evil.

The arts and crafts of the indigenous Siberian peoples are inextricably linked with traditional economic activities and pre-Christian religious beliefs. Clothing ornamentation, embroidery, leather embossing, bone carving - all this is replete with stories on hunting themes, magical spell patterns designed to protect the owner of the thing, ward off evil spirits, and attract good luck in hunting and fishing.

The appearance of Russians in Siberia and their gradual advance to the east (XVI-XVII centuries) up to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, made significant changes in the way of life of local peoples and their cultural development, accompanied by the introduction of farming skills, various crafts and crafts, the construction of cities and fortresses, acquaintance of Siberian natives with Christianity.

Explorers of Siberia. Thanks to the energy and courage of explorers, the border of Russia during the 16th - 17th centuries. was advanced far to the east beyond the Ural Mountains. 60 years after Yermak's campaign, the children and grandchildren of his archers cut down the first winter quarters on the Pacific coast. In the autumn of 1638, a party of 30 people was sent to the Pacific Ocean, led by the Tomsk Cossack Ivan Yuryevich Moskvitin. August 13, 1639 they went to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. At the mouth of the Ulya, the Cossacks got acquainted with the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, passing and swimming 1700 km.

G.I. did a lot to secure the lands of the Amur region for Russia. Nevelsky. A nobleman, born in the Kostroma province, graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps, served in the Baltic for many years. Voluntarily undertook to deliver the cargo to Kamchatka. In 1849 - 50 years. he, examining the lower reaches of the Amur, proved that Sakhalin is an island. In 1850, he raised the flag at the mouth of the Amur and laid the foundation for the first Russian settlement here. He was the initiator of the signing of the Beijing Treaty in 1860. on the border with China along the Amur River.

A explorer, a Cossack, originally from Ustyug S.I., served in Siberia for a long time. Dezhnev. In 1648 Together with the trader Popov, he sailed from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Pacific Ocean, rounded the Asian northeastern cape, but because of the fog he did not see the American coast. An outstanding researcher of Siberia and the Far East was the ethnographer and writer V.K. Arseniev(1872-1938). In 1902-1910. he explored the still little known territories between the Amur and Ussuri, the Sikhote-Alin region. He collected extensive scientific material on the surface, geology, flora and fauna, material on the languages, customs and habits of the small peoples living there. He was the author of books of a scientific and artistic nature - "On the Ussuri Territory" (1921), "Dersu Uzala" (1923), "In the mountains of Sikhote-Alin" (1937). Priceless is his travel report - "A Brief Military-Geographical and Military-Statistical Essay on the Ussuri Territory" (1912).

A well-known explorer of Siberia was a geologist and geographer, academician, Hero of Socialist Labor, director of the Institute of Permafrost Science of the USSR Academy of Sciences V.A. obruchev(1863-1956). For many years, his main area of ​​study was Siberia. In his research work, he paid great attention to the problems of permafrost, the origin of noble loess in Central and Central Asia, and the geology of the origin of gold. V. A. Obruchev is the author of many popular science books, textbooks and science fiction novels - "Plutonia", "Sannikov Land", "Gold Diggers in the Desert" and others.

In strengthening the position of Russia in Transbaikalia and along the Amur River, the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia (1847-1861) played an important role. N.N.Ants and his assistant, an outstanding traveler captain of the 1st rank G.I.Nevelsky(1813-1876). In 1850 GI Nevelsky made a heroic voyage in the waters of the Far East, at the mouth of the Amur and upstream of the Amur. Travel continued in 1851-1853. and were an important condition for the subsequent consolidation of the south of Siberia and the Far East for Russia. Floating along the Amur, G.I. Nevelsky won over Shlyakov, who lived along the Amur, to himself and the Moscow state. He managed to establish good economic relations with the Manchus, who lived on the right bank of this river, convinced their ruler that it was impossible to rob Shlyakov in unequal trade, steal their girls. As a result, in 1860, the Beijing border treaty was signed with China. For Russia there were lands on the left bank of the Amur with tributaries. This is the Ussuriysk and Primorsky Territory. China owned the land on the right bank. Governor-General N.N. Muravyov was awarded the title of count and the addition to the surname "Amursky" for his successful policy of consolidating Russian influence in the sparsely populated and little-known lands of the Amur Region, the Ussuri Territory, and Sakhalin Island.

S.U. enjoys great fame and respect among Siberians. Remezov(1662-1716), an outstanding Russian historian and geographer, author of the Remizov Chronicle and the Drawing Book of Siberia, an atlas of 23 maps that give a versatile description of natural conditions, terrain features and its economic significance.

In 1695 Yautian service man Vladimir Atlasov made an expedition to Kamchatka and laid the foundation for the development of this region. V.Atlasov's successor was an outstanding Russian traveler and researcher, Academician S.P. Krasheninnikov(1713-1755). He studied Kamchatka for four years, as a result of which he compiled the first detailed "Description of the Land of Kamchatka" in two volumes, published after his death in 1756 and translated into many languages ​​of the world. This essay is unique in the richness of the information given in it, in the accuracy of the description, and the fascination of the presentation.

He devoted a lot of time and effort to the development of Siberia Vitus Bering(1681-1741) - navigator, officer of the Russian fleet, a native of Denmark. Bering went through all of Siberia to the Pacific Ocean, crossed in 1723. The Kamchatka peninsula, having sailed from its eastern coast to the north, found that in the north the Siberian coast turns to the west. This again proved that Asia was not connected to America, although because of the fogs, Bering could not determine that the sea separating the two continents was a strait.

By the end of the XVII century. there was a large influx of peasants into Western Siberia, who, under the yoke of need, went with their families, fleeing from the heavy "tax". Although the expansion of sown areas increased the production of grain in Siberia, it could not do without imported grain. Before the construction of Turksib, Siberia was an agricultural region. Posad settlement of cities in the 17th century. was very few. Various crafts developed in the cities: leather, iron, shoe. In order to replenish the treasury, the government paid great attention to the extraction of non-ferrous metals - gold, silver, copper and iron.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. The well-known industrialists Demidovs founded ten factories in Siberia and discovered copper and silver deposits in the region. The largest factories were Kolyvanovo-Voskresensky and Barnaul. At the beginning of the XVIII century. government tax policy has changed. Yasak with furs began to be gradually replaced by a cash contribution. Furs ceased to be a currency commodity due to the development of commodity-money relations.

Until the 19th century Siberian industry, except for mining, was in its infancy. Of exceptional importance for Siberia was the construction of the Great Siberian Way - the Trans-Siberian Railway. Turksib passes through the territory of two continents: Europe (1777 km) and Asia (7511 km). Along the Turksib, 87 cities arose. Thanks to this highway, the economic development of Siberia accelerated: new industrial enterprises appeared, new settlements with modern houses with electricity and all modern plumbing equipment. A mass of settlers, especially peasants, liberated by Alexander II from serfdom, poured into the newly formed railway line. The government has established a preferential fare for migrants, three times less than usual. Over a quarter of a century, about 4 million people moved. The population of Siberia has doubled.

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Siberia has become, along with the Urals, the country's largest arsenal. Dozens of factories and hundreds of thousands of workers and employees were evacuated here. During the war years, aviation and tank industries, tractor construction, production of ball bearings, new types of machine tools, tools, and devices were created here. In 1941-1944. Siberia produced 11.2 million tons of grain - 16% of the total harvested in the country. With the beginning of the development of oil and gas fields in Western Siberia, the largest oil refineries and petrochemical complexes in the country were created.

Development of culture and education in Siberia. The development of culture and especially education in Siberia after joining Russia was an extremely necessary and difficult task. Until the XVI century. in terms of the level of development, Siberia was at the stage of a static civilization: pre-literate, pre-state, technically underdeveloped, with a mythological, religious consciousness of the majority of the population.

Until the beginning of the XVIII century. there were no schools in Siberia. A small number of children were taught to read and write by private teachers. According to the royal decree of January 9, 1701, nobleman Andrey Ivanovich Gorodetsky was sent to Tobolsk to the Sophia Metropolitan House. He was ordered to build a school, to teach the children of the ministers of the church to read and write, Slavic grammar and other books in the Slavic language. In 1725 a theological school was established in Irkutsk at the Ascension Monastery, and in 1780 the second seminary in Siberia was opened in this city. Theological schools also trained personnel for civil institutions. The schools had rich libraries with books of not only spiritual, but also secular content, and even rare handwritten essays.

In 1702 A new Metropolitan Filofey Leshchinsky arrived in Tobolsk. He was obliged to engage in missionary activities, which he successfully coped with, introducing about 40 thousand inhabitants to the Orthodox faith. On his initiative, the building of a religious school was built to teach the youths of the clergy there. In 1705, the first church theater was created in Tobolsk. The merit in his formation belonged to Metropolitan Leshchinsky.

The missionary activity of the church played an important role in the spread of culture. The development of education was facilitated by the decree of Metropolitan Philotheus, issued in 1715. missionaries were trained from among the children of the Khanty and Mansi. Subsequently, dozens of other missions established similar schools for indigenous children with hundreds of students. However, these schools were not very viable, many of them were short-lived and closed.

The reforms of Peter the Great in the field of education also affected Siberia. Secular educational institutions appeared a little later than spiritual ones, but the number of students in them was much larger. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. In Tobolsk, a digital school was opened, in which there were about 200 students. Garrison schools were also created for the children of military personnel, in which they taught literacy, military affairs and crafts. The diversity of ethnic groups and the expansion of international relations in the Siberian region contributed to the opening of schools for future translators and interpreters. The emergence of the mining industry in Siberia, the development of river transport led to the opening of vocational schools - geodetic, factory, navigation. A mining school was opened in Barnaul. Medical schools emerged.

After the reforms of Empress Catherine II, concerning, in particular, public schools, in Siberia at the end of the 18th century. open such schools. The program of small public schools was limited to teaching the skills of writing, calligraphy, reading, drawing, and "Christian law and good morality." In the Irkutsk and Tobolsk schools, along with generally accepted subjects, a number of languages ​​were studied. An important role in teaching the peasants to read and write was played by the Old Believers, who had significant cultural potential.

The Decembrists exiled to this harsh region showed great concern for the development of education in Siberia. Among them: G.S. Batenkov, N.A. and M.A. Bestuzhev, M.S. Lunin, V.F. Raevsky, I.D. Yakushkin. They advocated the creation of the so-called Lancaster schools, i.e. schools of mutual education, developed program requirements aimed at the development of culture and education in Siberia: the creation of a wide network of elementary schools at the expense of voluntary donations from the local population, granting the exiles the legal right to educate children, increasing the number of secondary educational institutions, providing government support in the educational institutions of the capital for graduates of Siberian gymnasiums, the creation of a special class at the Irkutsk gymnasium for the training of officials for civil institutions, the opening of a university in Siberia. Decembrist I.D. Yakushkin with the assistance of the Archpriest of the Sretensky Cathedral S.Ya. Znamensky in 1846. opened in the city of Yalutorovsk, Tyumen region, the first school for girls in Siberia.

The demands of the Decembrists were supported by progressive figures in Russia and Siberia. In 1817 in Western Siberia there were 4 city parochial schools, in 1830 - already 7, in 1855 - 15. Seminaries at that time operated in Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Tomsk.

In 1888 The first university in Siberia was opened in Tomsk. This was done with the help of patrons: the merchant M. Sidorov offered a fortune to set up a university. In 1896, the Tomsk Technological Institute was established.

The creation of writing contributed to the development of literacy among the indigenous inhabitants of Siberia. The basis of the alphabet for the ethnic groups of Siberia was the Russian or Latin alphabet. In 1924 Khakass script was created, 1930 - Tuvan national script based on the Latinized alphabet. In 1930 The Buryat language was translated into the Latin alphabet, then into an alphabet created on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet. The writing of the Altaians was created on the basis of Russian graphics.

In 1833 The first public library was opened in Tomsk. In the same city, Tomsk Gubernskie Vedomosti was published, in the Republic of Buryatia, the newspaper Life on the Eastern Outskirts. The Irtysh magazine was also published.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. in the field of education in Siberia, it seemed that quite a lot had been done. But in comparison with the European part of Russia, Siberia occupied only 16th place in terms of literacy. Therefore, from the first years of Soviet power, special attention was paid to public education: appropriations grew, social forces, the Down with Illiteracy society, were actively developed and supported. For five years from 1923 to 1928. in Siberia, more than 500 thousand people were educated. In 1930 2,460 cultural soldiers took part in the elimination of illiteracy in Omsk, who trained almost seven thousand people. The forces of the public in the city taught 90% of the covered illiterate and semi-literate.

In 1934-1935. a network of schools for adults was created at boarding schools, trading posts, “red tents” began to be organized, in which reindeer herders were taught both in winter and in summer camps. Boarding schools were set up for children in remote areas at state expense.

The largest centers of Siberia. From the end of the 16th century, a number of cities arose in Siberia along the banks of large rivers, which by now are major cultural, scientific and economic centers. The first proper Siberian city after the Ural Mountains is Tyumen, founded in 1586, only 3 years after Yermak's campaign, under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich. In the next, 1587. Tobolsk was also founded on the banks of the Tobol. The population of these cities is 566 and 92 thousand people, respectively. Administratively, Tobolsk is part of the Tyumen region.

Following further along the Trans-Siberian Railway, you can successively visit most of the largest Siberian cities: Omsk, Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Chita. Yakutsk still remains outside the railway network. Planned and designed in the 70s - 80s. XX century as a northern branch of the BAM, the Yakutsk-Amur Mainline was never built. The modern cultural significance of Siberian cities is determined by the presence in them and the territories adjacent to them of a significant number of historical and cultural monuments of both local and national significance, memorial sites associated with the life and work of a number of major figures in Russian history, unique natural objects that attract the attention of domestic and foreign tourists.

Tyumen and Tobolsk, being the oldest Siberian cities, contain many interesting cultural monuments. The oldest buildings in the city are the buildings of the 18th century: the Holy Trinity Monastery (founded in 1616, but no wooden buildings survived), on the territory of which in the early 18th century. a number of stone churches were erected thanks to the activities of the Metropolitan of Tobolsk and Siberian Philotheus. It is noteworthy that Peter I personally gave Philotheus permission to build stone churches. The Znamensky Cathedral (1768 - 1801) was later built in the city in the Russian baroque style characteristic of that era, the Church of the Archangel Michael (1789), the Church of the Savior (1794). ) and Holy Cross Church (1791). To date, all the churches have been returned to the Russian Orthodox Church, restored, and worship is being conducted in them.

In general, it should be noted that Orthodoxy is the most important and integral component of the cultural heritage of Siberia as a whole. This is quite natural, since in the last four and a half centuries the culture of Siberia has received impulses for development from, first of all, the Russian people, the basis of whose spiritual and cultural life is precisely Orthodoxy. It is this moment, in addition to ethnic and linguistic, that determines the identity of Siberia as a part of Russia, not only administratively, but also culturally.

Of the old secular buildings, the houses of the merchants I. V. Ikonnikov (1804) and I. P. Kolokolnikov (2nd half of the 19th century) should be mentioned. These typical representatives of the Russian entrepreneurial world became famous not so much for their success in the accumulation of wealth (although they were very successful), but for their efforts in the field of patronage, charity and enlightenment. So, through the efforts of the Kolokolnikov family, a women's gymnasium, commercial and public schools were built in Tyumen. The Ikonnikov House became famous in its time for the fact that in it in 1837. during a trip to Russia, the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexander Nikolaevich, the future Emperor Alexander II the Liberator, stopped. In the retinue that accompanied him was the poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky.

There are 16 temples in Tobolsk. The oldest of them is the Sophia-Assumption Cathedral, built in the 80s. 17th century on the model of the temple in the Ascension Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin. Also remarkable is the Intercession Cathedral, built in 1743 - 1746. This cathedral houses the miraculous relics of Metropolitan John of Tobolsk and All Siberia, which attracts a large number of pilgrims. The Tobolsk Kremlin is a major monument of historical and cultural significance. The oldest wooden buildings of the XVI - XVII centuries. For obvious reasons, they didn't survive. The stone Kremlin was built in the first decade of the 18th century. designed by the outstanding architect Semyon Remezov. An equally unique monument of Siberian defensive architecture is an earthen rampart built in 1688. to protect the upper city.

Whichever of the other Siberian cities we take in the future, everywhere we will find the culturally structuring role of Orthodoxy, the Russian ethnos and the Russian language. In Omsk, one can note several Orthodox churches, which, in addition to the cult, also have general cultural significance. The largest is the Assumption Cathedral, built in the Russian style in 1898. It is remarkable in that it hosted the blessing of Admiral Kolchak to serve Russia in the role of the Supreme Ruler on January 29, 1919. In addition to it, several temple buildings of an earlier period have been preserved in the city: the Exaltation of the Cross Cathedral (1865 - 1870), the Nikolsky Cossack Cathedral (the beginning of the 19th century), as well as two chapels: the chapel in the name of the Iberian Icon of the Mother of God and St. Sergius of Radonezh (1867 ) and the Serafimo-Alexeevskaya chapel, built in 1907. in honor of the birth of Nicholas II's son and heir Alexei.

The largest Siberian city, often referred to as the "Capital of Siberia" is Novosibirsk, with over 1.5 million inhabitants. The first Russian settlements on the river. Both appeared at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries. In 1893 in connection with the laying of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of a bridge across the Ob began, and at the same time the village of Novonikolaevsky was formed, which received in 1903. city ​​status. In 1926 Novonikolaevsk was renamed Novosibirsk. Among the monuments of religious culture, the most remarkable is the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, built at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. in Russian-Byzantine style. Currently, the cathedral has been returned to the Russian Orthodox Church and restored to its original form.

Among the monuments of classical secular culture, one of the first places is occupied by the Novosibirsk Opera and Ballet Theater, which is considered one of the best in Russia. The building itself was built in the 1930s. His project, created in the workshop of A. S. Shchusev, was awarded a prize at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1936. Since 1986 in Novosibirsk, a subway has been built and is successfully operating (2 lines, 12 stations).

A special place in the culture of Novosibirsk and Siberia as a whole belongs to Akademgorodok, founded in 1957. at the suggestion of Academician M.A. Lavrentiev, who insisted on the creation of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Almost from the moment of its creation to the present time, Akademgorodok has been the third most important scientific center in Russia after Moscow and St. Petersburg, and in some areas and directions of scientific research it confidently holds the lead. In addition to Novosibirsk State University, Akademgorodok has 38 research institutes whose research teams are capable of solving a variety of research and applied problems.

In 1963 The first stage of Akademgorodok was commissioned: 10 academic institutes, residential quarters and a production base. Academgorodok decorated the House of Scientists of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the House of Culture, the Central Siberian Geological Museum, which exhibited a variety of minerals and ores of Siberia, fossil flora and fauna, fragments of meteorites. The Museum has an excellent collection of artificial crystals grown in the laboratories of the Institute: emeralds, aquamarines, rubies, noble opals (“Northern Opal”), etc. in 1973 at a coal mine in Yakutia.

Visitors to Akademgorodok are greatly interested in the exposition of the Museum of the History and Culture of the Peoples of Siberia, which reflects the stages of the region's development over the millennia. The basis of the exhibition "Russian Ethnography" is made up of exhibits collected in the Old Believer settlements of Altai and Transbaikalia.

The emergence and successful development of the Novosibirsk Academgorodok is a clear evidence of the polycentrism of Russian culture, when each region is given the opportunity and the center is supported to develop its own cultural potential. At the same time, the unity of the Russian cultural space is preserved, its essential integrity, with simultaneous mosaic and diversity. Such is the general dialectic of the cultural life of Russia, which manifests itself in all regions, including Siberia.

The next major city after Novosibirsk, located along the Trans-Siberian Railway, is Tomsk, founded in 1604. The population of Tomsk is 473 thousand people. For a long time, Tomsk developed mainly as a trading city, being the largest trade and financial center in Siberia. In 1901 The first stock exchange in Siberia was opened there. Concentration in the city until 1917 a large number of merchants determined the presence in it of a significant number of monuments of church and secular architecture.

In Tomsk, you can find several Orthodox churches that differ in the time of construction: the Cathedral of the Epiphany, built in 1777 - 1784. in the late Siberian Baroque style on the site of the dilapidated Epiphany Church of the 1620s. It remains only to regret that this monument of Siberian wooden architecture has not survived to this day; Bogoroditse-Aleksievsky Monastery, founded in 1606, although the buildings that have been preserved in it date back to the 18th - 19th centuries; Church of the Resurrection (1st half of the 18th century). One of the sights can be considered a chapel over the grave of the elder Theodore Kuzmich, whom many considered Emperor Alexander I to have departed from the world. The riddles around this elder have not yet been resolved by historical science.

Tomsk is remarkable for its monuments of wooden architecture, made with extraordinary grace and decorated with amazingly beautiful wooden carvings: Profitable house on the street. Belinsky, "House with Firebirds" on the street. Krasnoarmeiskaya, Kryachkov's mansion on avenue. Kirova and others. Wooden architecture is a typical feature of Russian culture. Decorative carving often carries archaic elements of solar-agrarian and protective magical symbols, preserved from pre-Christian times, although it has lost its original meaning in the minds of people. Russian people, settling in Siberia, brought here their ideas about the beauty of the home. Therefore, Siberian cities and villages, having a number of unique features, carry a typological unity with the architecture of European Russia.

Tomsk is a major scientific center. Here is the Tomsk branch of the SB RAS, Tomsk State University, Tomsk Polytechnic University. Tomsk State University is the oldest in Siberia; it was founded by decree of Emperor Alexander I in 1803. Its main building was built in 1885. Since Soviet times, Tomsk has retained the importance of one of the most important centers for nuclear research. All this confirms the inherent polycentrism of culture in Russia.

The next major Siberian city after Tomsk to the east is Krasnoyarsk (founded in 1628). Being located in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Krasnoyarsk has an advantageous location and has a population of 920 thousand people. The oldest of the Krasnoyarsk churches is considered to be the Intercession Cathedral, built in 1785-1795. A remarkable monument of Siberian temple architecture is also the Church of the Annunciation, built in 1804-1822. on donations from the merchant Yegor Porokhovshchikov. There are four altars in the three-story stone church with a bell tower. Both churches are active.

The place from which the history of Krasnoyarsk began is called Strelka. This is the confluence of Kacha and Yenisei. It was here that the fortress was erected, which laid the foundation for the city. Currently, there is a memorial stone on the site of the fortress.

Among the monuments of historical and cultural significance, the ship-museum "Saint Nicholas", which sailed along the Yenisei from 1887 to 1960, deserves attention. The steamer originally belonged to the merchant and industrialist I. M. Sibiryakov and at the end of the 19th century. was the fastest on the Yenisei. In addition to its long service life, the ship gained fame due to the fact that in 1897. V. I. Lenin went to exile on it.

After 1917 the period of accelerated development of Krasnoyarsk begins. In the 20 - 30s. XX century large-scale construction is underway; during the Great Patriotic War, a number of industrial enterprises evacuated from the western regions of the USSR were located in Krasnoyarsk and its environs, which played a positive role in the subsequent development of the city.

After the end of the war, the industrial development of Krasnoyarsk continued. Of particular importance were the closed cities of Krasnoyarsk-26 (modern Zheleznogorsk) and Krasnoyarsk-45 (modern Zelenogorsk), created in the interests of the military-industrial complex. They have largely retained their scientific and industrial potential up to the present day.

Following the Trans-Siberian further to the east, we stop our attention on Irkutsk. The city was founded in 1661. in the immediate vicinity (68 km) from Lake Baikal. In 1682 it became the center of the Irkutsk province and an outpost for the further advancement of Russia in Transbaikalia and the Far East.

At present, the population of Irkutsk is 590 thousand people. Irkutsk is a large industrial center of Eastern Siberia. A number of important industrial enterprises of regional and federal significance are located in the city itself and in the region.

In Irkutsk, there is the oldest stone church preserved in Eastern Siberia - the Savior Not Made by Hands, built in 1706 - 1710. Somewhat later, the Cathedral of the Epiphany was erected (1724 - 1726). It is remarkable for its decoration of colored glazed tiles with floral and mythological ornaments.

There are many museums in Siberia, the exhibits of which were provided by patrons. In the Irkutsk region there is the village of Slyudyanka (founded in the 1940s), in which a private mineralogical museum was opened, created by a local resident V.A. Zhigalov. The collection contains almost 9 thousand exhibits: all the minerals known to modern science (3450 species). The Angarsk Museum of Local Lore presents a collection of watches collected by Angarsk citizen P.V. Kurdyukov. The collection contains 1100 watches from different countries and times, sizes and beauty. Their bodies are made of bronze and marble, porcelain and wood. More than 300 pocket watches are displayed in the halls.

In the Irkutsk region there are several historical and memorial museums of the Decembrists - S.G. Volkonsky, S.P. Trubetskoy. The Trubetskoy house-museum has a permanent exhibition that tells about the life of the Decembrists in hard labor, authentic things of the Trubetskoy family, furniture, embroideries of Princess E.I. Trubetskoy, and her daughter’s works in the field of painting are kept.

The richest art museum in Siberia named after V.P. Sukachev (1845-1920), a prominent Irkutsk public figure, operates in Irkutsk. The museum contains 250 paintings by Russian and Western European artists - masters from Holland, Flanders, Italy, France, Japan and China.

In the Omsk region there is the only zoo in Russia, located in natural conditions on 19 hectares of the picturesque floodplain of the Bolshaya River - the Bolsherechensky State Zoo. It contains about 820 representatives of the animal world. Novosibirsk has the largest city zoo in Russia. It contains about 10 thousand individuals of 120 species. In 1999 in Khatanga (Taimyr Autonomous Okrug), on the basis of the Taimyr Reserve, a unique Mammoth and Musk Ox Museum was created.

Many wonderful people were born, lived, studied and worked in Siberia, whom all of Russia knows and is proud of. The city of Omsk and the region were the birthplace of Lieutenant General, Hero of the Soviet Union D.M. Karbyshev (1880-1945), who was brutally murdered by Nazi executioners. In the Altai Territory is the birthplace of the People's Artist of the USSR M.A. Ulyanov, the poet of the sixties R.I. Rozhdestvensky. The outstanding Russian artist Mikhail Vrubel was born in Omsk.

Siberians are proud of pilot-cosmonauts N.N. Rukavishnikov, A.A. Leonov In Novosibirsk there is a scientific and memorial center of Yu.V. Kondratyuk (1897-1942), an outstanding inventor of space technology (for example, the Buran reusable spacecraft).

The famous writer, film director, artist V.M. Shukshin (1929-1974) lived and worked in the Altai Republic. His best films: “Such a guy lives”, “Stove-shops”, “Your son and brother” - he shot on the Chuisky tract in the villages of Manzherok, Ust-Sema, etc. In many of his stories, residents of Gorny Altai are represented: hardworking, witty people who love their country.

In less than 300 years, Siberia has turned from a taiga region into one of the most developed regions of Russia economically and socio-culturally. In terms of industrial potential, Western Siberia ranks third in the Russian Federation (14.9%), and Eastern Siberia is among the top five economically developed regions. It produces 6.6% of the total Russian industrial output.

Three centuries ago, the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov predicted that "Russian power will grow in Siberia."

Cultural development of Siberia in the era of Catherine II

As a manuscript

Khait Nadezhda Leonidovna

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF SIBERIA IN THE AGE OF CATHERINE II

Specialty 07.00.02. - National history

dissertations for a degree

candidate of historical sciences

Krasnoyarsk - 2007

The work was carried out at the Department of Russian History, Siberian Federal University

Scientific adviser candidate of historical sciences,

Professor I.A. Pryadko

Official opponents Doctor of Historical Sciences,

Professor G.F. Bykonya,

Candidate of Historical Sciences,

docent A.V. Lonin

Leading organization Kemerovo State

university of culture

The defense will take place on November 9, 2007 at 10 o'clock at a meeting of the dissertation council D. 212. 097. 01. for the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences at the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafiev at the address: 660077, Krasnoyarsk, st. Takeoff, 20, Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafieva, Faculty of History, room. 2-21.

The dissertation can be found in the reading room of the scientific library of the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafiev.

Scientific secretary candidate of historical

dissertation science, associate professor L.E. Mezite

I. General characteristics of work

Relevance of the topic. At present, interest in the history of cultural development has increased significantly, since culture is a qualitative characteristic of society. Culture is recognized as one of the important regulators of social life, as well as a necessary condition for the development of the individual as a subject of versatile social activity.

The growth of interest in the study of various aspects of culture was characteristic of the entire world science of the twentieth century, and has especially intensified in recent decades. This is due to the fact that the history of the culture of the multinational Russian people remains poorly understood in our country. This is especially true of the history of regional culture, which is an organic part of the all-Russian, but at the same time, retains its originality. Siberia, which for a long time was considered only as a “raw material appendage” of Russia, also belongs to such regions. That is why the works on the history of Siberia are dominated by socio-economic and political aspects, while the issues of cultural development, the formation of the spirituality of the people remain practically unexplored. Without knowing the basic elements of Russian culture, it is impossible to understand social history, cultural relationships with neighbors, the formation and spread of new features in Russian society. Therefore, the topic chosen for the dissertation research seems to be relevant. The relevance of this topic is also explained by the importance of the implementation of cultural ties for the full existence of any national culture. The perception of global spiritual values ​​is important for the further successful development of each nation's own culture. Cultural life of Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. characterizes not only secularism, the increasing importance of the human personality, but also the expansion of intercultural contacts. Therefore, the study of such experience is especially relevant today.

The degree of knowledge of the problem. The chosen topic has never been the subject of a special study, although some of its aspects were covered at different times. At the first stage of study, relating to the pre-revolutionary period, the study of the culture of Siberia in the XVIII century. was in its infancy.

In the 40s - 80s. 19th century the works of P.A. Slovtsova, A.P. Shchapova, V.K. Andrievich, P.M. Golovachev, N.M. Yadrintsev devoted to general issues of the history of Siberia. In them, the first attempts were made to characterize the level of general culture in Siberia, which, as a rule, was rated very low by the authors.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. On the pages of Siberian periodicals, fragmentary different aspects of cultural development in the period of interest to us begin to be considered. These are the publications of S.S. Shashkov, I. Malinovsky, V.A. Zagorsky, V.A. Vatin, in which some regions of Siberia were studied separately, which did not allow us to see the overall picture of the development of the cultural sphere. The disadvantage of these works is that they were published without references to archival sources, which were undoubtedly used. All these authors also noted the extremely low level of Siberian culture - the amazing ignorance of the population, the complete lack of literacy, the absence of mail, books, magazines, newspapers. It was especially emphasized that the population of Siberia - simple Cossacks, service people, exiled criminals, runaway serfs, self-serving industrialists and merchants could not be the conductors of culture.

Thus, a fragmentary, fragmentary study of Siberian culture, including the culture of the Catherine era, largely predetermined extremely negative assessments of the cultural level in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

The second stage of the study refers to the Soviet era. At this time, works appeared in which an attempt was made to analyze certain areas of cultural development, including in the period of interest to us. The first major study on one of the sections of the culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was the work of N.S. Yurtsovsky "Essays on the history of enlightenment in Siberia", published in 1923 in Novonikolaevsk. This is a summary essay on the history of education in Siberia. In particular, the author pays attention to the organization of education in Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century, and changes in it in connection with the school reform of Catherine II. After analyzing the state of Siberian education before and after the reform, the author came to the conclusion that it was essentially barren, the main and small public schools established by the Empress did not fulfill their task of educating the Siberian society.

In 1924 D.A. Boldyrev-Kazarin published a work devoted to the applied art of the Russian population of Siberia - peasant painting, ornamentation, woodcarving, and sculpture. At the same time, he was the first to justify the selection of a special style in architecture - the Siberian Baroque.

One of the most significant in the study of the Russian culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was, of course, the publication in 1947 of the book by M. K. Azadovsky “Essays on the Literature and Culture of Siberia”. The author of this work, along with the characteristics of Siberian literature, was the first of the Soviet researchers to raise the question of the general nature and level of cultural development of Siberia in comparison with the European part of the country and made an attempt to give a general description of the cultural life of the region, highlighting regional specifics (Irkutsk, Tobolsk), without deepening into a detailed consideration of individual aspects of culture. In general, M.K. Azadovsky very positively assessed the state of culture in the 18th century. The main drawback of the work is the lack of references to archival materials.

Following the publication of the book by M.K. Azadovsky in the 1940s - early 1960s. A series of works devoted to the study of certain aspects of the cultural past of Siberia was published. Thus, the history of the theater in Siberia was covered in the works of P.G. Malyarevsky, S.G. Landau, B. Zherebtsova. These works contain mainly negative assessments of the development of theater in Siberia during the era of enlightenment. B. Zherebtsov was the first Soviet researcher to address this topic, and in 1940 he published his work The Theater in Old Siberia. And although he used materials already published earlier, this was the first systematic study in this direction in Soviet historiography. His studies in the theater were later continued by S.G. Landau and P.G. Malyarevsky, whose works “From the History of the Omsk Drama Theater” and “Essay on the History of the Theatrical Culture of Siberia” were published in 1951 and 1957. divert the attention of the population from acute political issues.

Certain issues of the literary creativity of Siberians, the characteristics of their reading interests and the development of librarianship were considered in the 1930s-60s. In 1965, G. Kungurov, in contrast to the authors of the 2nd half of the 19th century, gave a very positive assessment of the activities of Siberian writers in the Catherine era, and was the first to analyze the materials of periodicals of that time.

Much attention in the Soviet era was paid to the study of Siberian architecture. In 1950 - 1953 with two large monographs on Russian folk architecture in Siberia, E.A. Ashchepkov. The author mainly examines the monuments of Russian architecture in Siberia at the end of the 18th century. and later periods. At the same time, he characterizes the general line of change in architectural styles, the planning and development of cities and villages, and the specific features of the development of Russian architecture in Siberia.

This was followed by a number of works on the history of Siberian architecture with a specific analysis of its individual historical stages in a particular region of Siberia, as well as on the work of local architects. In relation to the period under study, of these works, one can note the studies of B.I. Ogly, dedicated to the architecture of Irkutsk in the 18th – 19th centuries. (1958), V.I. Kochedamova (1963), D.I. Kopylova (1975), O.N. Vilkov (1977) about the architecture of Tobolsk and Tyumen.

In the 70s - early 80s. 20th century scientists emphasized the importance of studying culture as an integral part of historical development. During this period, many different works were published on the history of the culture of pre-revolutionary Russia, including the regtone we are studying.

Works by E.K. Romodanovskaya, published in the mid-1960s. continued to study the reading circle of Siberians. In the article "New Materials on the History of Siberian Literature of the 18th Century", published in 1965, the author cites samples of satirical epigrams, plays that were widespread in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II. E.K. Romodanovskaya noted that Siberians were familiar with the literature that was widespread in the European part of Russia.

The issues of cultural development of our region during the reign of Catherine II were summarized by A.N. Kopylov in one of the chapters of the second volume of a 5-volume study on the history of Siberia, edited by A.P. Okladnikov, published in Leningrad in 1968. The author of the chapter examined the issues of the history of education and Russian artistic culture in combination with socio-economic and political factors of social development.

Of the entire set of publications devoted to the cultural development of Siberia, it is worth highlighting the works of A.N. Kopylov. In the monograph "Culture of the Russian population of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries", which was published in 1968, it is emphasized that before the revolution, the study of the culture of Siberia in the 17th-18th centuries. was in its infancy. Studies on certain issues of the culture of the region in the form of essays, reports and notes, published in various pre-revolutionary publications, dealt mainly with private issues. The author emphasized that in journalism and literary works Siberia, for various reasons, was often depicted as "an impenetrable wilderness, a land of savagery and ignorance."

Of course, this and other works of the author contain generally accepted assessments characteristic of the Soviet era. So, A.N. Kopylov noted that tsarism stifled any progressive thought in Russia and hindered the development of the masses, which was especially pronounced in Siberia, which was viewed as a source of enrichment for the royal treasury and a place of exile for political prisoners and criminals. In the work "Essays on the cultural life of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries", published in Novosibirsk in 1974, A.N. Kopylov gave a generalized description of different areas of the culture of feudal Siberia. He noted, in particular, that architectural creativity, fine and theatrical art, school education and other branches of Siberian culture were formed under the influence of various elements of North Russian, Central Russian and Ukrainian culture. A.N. Kopylov, one of the first researchers, emphasized the importance of the powerful influence of the center of the country on the Siberian culture.

Received reflection in the literature of the study of the problems of cultural development in the Siberian village. These are the works of M.M. Gromyko, published in Novosibirsk in the 1970s. and dedicated to the Russian population of Western Siberia in the 18th century, as well as the work of V.I. Bocharnikova, published in 1973, characterizing the policy of tsarism in relation to the school and the church in the state village of Western Siberia.

In the work of G.F. Bykoni, dedicated to the Russian exempt population of Eastern Siberia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, published in 1985, archival information about the organization of public schools and the development of librarianship in the region was published. This work was continued by further study and publication of archival sources on the history of the culture of Krasnoyarsk, provided with detailed comments in the work "The City near Krasny Yar" (1986).

Valuable material is contained in a series of monographs by N.A. Minenko, which were published in 1980 - early 90s, dedicated to the history of the Russian peasant family. They deal with issues of labor education, training of the peasantry, the role of the church in the cultural life and life of the village. In the work "The history of the culture of the Russian peasantry of Siberia" (1986) N.A. Minenko analyzed the level of literacy of Siberian peasants. In particular, she noted that the enrollment in the Schools, which were opened by decree of Catherine II, was not limited by class boundaries, and therefore there were cases of enrollment in the Schools of peasants, although not in large volumes.

Thus, the second stage of the study is characterized by a large number of publications devoted to various aspects of the cultural development of Siberia. The disadvantage of this period is the predominance of the economic factor in the study of the cultural past.

At the third, modern stage of research, the range of problems under consideration in the history of Russian culture is not only expanding, but new conceptual approaches to historical research are also emerging. The appeal of historians to the categorical apparatus of social and social sciences, such as cultural studies, philosophy, ethnology, historical psychology and anthropology, is the most important methodological change in historical science.

The problem of studying Siberian architecture is still popular. In the works of T.M. Stepanskaya, N.I. Lebedeva, K.Yu. Shumova, G.F. Bykoni, D.Ya. Rezuna, L.M. Dameshek, the history of building up the cities of Western and Eastern Siberia is considered: Barnaul, Omsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk. The authors singled out the specifics of architectural structures characteristic of different urban centers of Siberia, paid attention to the religious and civil development of cities, the change in architectural styles in the 18th century.

Modern Russian researchers are also studying social life, the adaptation of the Russian population in the conditions of the development of Siberia, the traditional consciousness of Siberians (O.N. Shelegina, A.I. Kupriyanov, O.N. Besedina, B.E. Andyusev).

Considerable attention is paid to the study of the educational sphere. So, in 1997-2003. two volumes of the Reader on the history of the development of schools in the Tobolsk province and an annotated index of literature on public education in the Tyumen region of the 18th-20th centuries were published. edited by Yu.P. Pribilsky. In 2004, the work of I. Cherkazyanova, dedicated to the school education of Russian Germans and the problem of the development and preservation of the German school in Siberia in the 18th - 20th centuries, was published in St. Petersburg. The first chapter of this work discusses the formation of the first German schools in Siberia and the role of the German clergy in organizing the education of Siberians.

The only work that examines the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment on the formation of the education system in Western Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. is the thesis of L.V. Nechaeva protected in 2004 in Tobolsk.

Thus, the absence of works studying the cultural development of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II and the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment on it made it possible to formulate purpose of the work. It consists in the study of the cultural development of the Siberian region in the context of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. Based on the goal, the following tasks:

1. Consider the conditions for the development of Siberian culture during the reign of Catherine II.
2. To reveal the qualitative changes in the educational, cultural and leisure spheres that took place in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.
3. To reveal the degree of influence of the ideas of education on the elite (noble) and mass (peasant) culture, to show changes in the ratio between traditional and innovative elements of culture in the region.
4. Determine how the material base of the cultural sphere contributed to its development.

As object The study was the cultural development of Siberia, by which we mean, first of all, two interrelated layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: the noble (or secular) layer and the culture of the bulk of the population - (or religious, peasant).

Subject studies were the changes that occurred in the cultural sphere under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism and their impact on various strata of Siberian society.

Chronological framework cover the period 1762-1796. - the reign of Catherine II, the time of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. This is the time of transition from the traditional way of life to a new, European way of life, the heyday of the Enlightenment culture in Russia.

Territorial limits: As a result of the reform of local government, the government successively in 1782 and 1783. created the Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan governorships in Siberia. Western Siberia covered two of the three governorships - Tobolsk and part of Kolyvan. Eastern Siberia included the Irkutsk governorate and part of the Kolyvan. In this study, priority is given to the culture of the Russian population, without analyzing the cultural life of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The specificity of the region was the presence of a huge economic potential, and its peripherality in relation to the European part of the country, with special natural-climatic and socio-cultural conditions.

Research Methodology. Important for this study is the civilizational approach, in which mentality, spirituality, interaction with other cultures are recognized as the main structural elements of civilization. In the XVIII century. Russian life was forcibly rebuilt in a European way. This process proceeded gradually, capturing at first only the upper layers, but little by little this change in Russian life began to spread in breadth and depth.

The study of changes in the cultural life of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II was carried out from the standpoint of an anthropocentric approach, which involves the study of the interests, needs, actions of people, the influence of culture on their daily life. This approach was used in studying the cultural needs and cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population. The application of the socio-cultural approach made it possible to pay attention to changes in the values ​​and cultural needs of Siberians that occurred under the influence of changes in society.

The dissertation also applied the methodology of the dialogue of cultures. With regard to the issue we are considering, there was a situation when the culture of Siberia came into contact with the European culture dominant in central Russia, while maintaining its originality and perceiving the best that the cultures of other peoples had accumulated.

The study was based on the general scientific principles of historicism and objectivity. The application of the first of them made it possible to consider the object of study in all its diversity and contradictions. The principle of objectivity made it possible to carry out a comprehensive and critical analysis of events and phenomena. Also, when writing the dissertation, comparative, logical, systemic methods were used, which made it possible to consider the cultural development of Siberia as a single process.

source base research has compiled unpublished (archival) documents and published materials.

The first group of sources consisted of archival documents. We studied materials from 11 collections of Siberian archives: the Tobolsk branch of the State Archives of the Tyumen Region (TF GATO), the Archival Agency of the Administration of the Krasnoyarsk Territory (AAACC), the State Archives of the Irkutsk Region (GAIO). One of the main sources for the development of the topic of this study was the materials stored in the TF GATO. Our attention was drawn to the fund of the Tobolsk spiritual consistory (F. 156), which contains information about the life and culture of the population. It was in the Tobolsk spiritual consistory that the main decrees, reports, promemoria, criminal cases flocked from all over Siberia, most of which relate to the religious, cultural, leisure, everyday, educational spheres of Siberian life. This made it possible to judge the everyday life of different strata of the urban and rural population: nobles, officials, peasants, foreigners, Old Believers, etc. The fund of the Tobolsk governorship (F. 341) also contains a certain amount of materials on the problem under study. Basically, these are cases in pursuance of official government decrees. The fund of the Tobolsk Order of Public Charity (F. I-355), which was in charge of schools, public institutions, hospitals, contains files on the receipt of funds from the sale of books published in the Tobolsk printing house, estimates for the repair of the theater and other public institutions of the city. The fund contains detailed information about the school reform and the organization of the learning process in Siberian small public schools. Fund 661 (Decrees of the Tobolsk police chief office) contains decrees on the improvement of Tobolsk. The AAACC studied the materials of the city hall fund (F. 122). Of interest were the minutes of the meetings of the town hall, as well as cases of collecting fines from peasants for evading confession and communion. The funds of the Tobolsk and Irkutsk spiritual consistories, kept in the AAACC (F. 812, 813), contain important materials for us about the construction of churches, the state of the parishes in terms of superstition. The funds of the Turukhansky Trinity and Spassky monasteries (F. 594, 258) include materials on various aspects of culture - chronicle writing, book distribution. In the GAIO, we were primarily interested in the fund of the Irkutsk Spiritual Consistory (F. 50), which also contains information about the life and culture of the Siberian population.

Official documents were an important source. These are, first of all, the decrees of Catherine II in the field of culture, the provisions of which extended to the territory of Siberia. In addition, we gleaned some information about the regulation of public life and control over the implementation of religious norms in the Charter of the Deanery (police charter) of Catherine II, published in 1782.

A significant amount of material was taken from published sources. First of all, this is the information contained in the periodicals of Siberia in the 80s - 90s. 18th century The study of the materials of the journals “The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene” and “Scientific, Historical, Economic Library ...” allows us to judge the development of some aspects of the cultural and leisure activities of Siberian residents, about the issues that were relevant at that time, which interested readers and were raised on the pages of publications.

Interesting information is contained in the notes of Russian and foreign citizens who visited Siberia for various purposes. These materials contain information about everyday life, the cultural image of Siberian cities and population. An interesting source was the published letters of A.N. Radishchev from Tobolsk, addressed to A.R. Vorontsov. They contain curious observations and assessments of the author concerning the Siberian way of life and culture. Notes by E. Laxmann, P. Pallas, Chappe d'Otrosh, August Kotzebue, Johann Ludwig Wagner should be singled out from travel observations of foreign citizens. An interesting source was the "Antidote", the authorship of which, not without reason, is attributed to Catherine II.

Of interest were the published documents of the Siberian archives contained in the Krasnoyarsk editions compiled by G.F. Bykoney, L.P. Shorokhov, G.L. Ruksha. In addition, some published documents and materials from the State Archives of the Altai Territory were taken from the textbook on regional studies "Culture in Altai in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries." 1999

A peculiar source was the publication of documents in the complex of pre-revolutionary periodicals of literary and local history publications of the 19th - early 20th centuries: "Siberian Archive", "Siberian Questions", "Literary Collection", published in the edition of "East Siberian Review". These publications often included short sketches of the cultural and everyday life of ancient Siberia.

The combination of sources made it possible to analyze the cultural life of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

Scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time the object of a special historical study was the changes in the culture of the Siberian region during the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. To cover this topic, a cultural approach was used. New archival materials have been introduced into scientific circulation.

The practical significance of the work. Generalizations and factual material of the dissertation can be used in the creation of generalizing works on the history of Siberia, in training courses on local history, museum practice.

Work structure. The dissertation of 173 pages consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, notes, a list of sources and references, numbering 119 items.

II. The main content of the work

In the introduction the relevance of the topic is substantiated, the degree of its study is revealed, the goals and objectives, the object and subject of research, its chronological and territorial framework are determined, the methodology, source base, scientific novelty and practical significance of the work are characterized. The main provisions of this work are published in the abstracts of scientific conferences on the history of the culture of Siberia.

Chapter first"Conditions of cultural development in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II" consists of three paragraphs. The first paragraph, "Government Policy in the Field of Culture," characterizes the essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism, as well as the conditions for its implementation in Siberia.

Enlightened absolutism refers not only to political actions, but also to those measures that were taken by the empress and were aimed at improving the human personality. Thanks to these measures, it was possible to achieve striking cultural achievements associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century.

Unlike European Russia, the composition of the Siberian population was different. In European Russia, the nobility was the bearer of the new secular culture. In Siberia, in addition to noble officials, a large role in the development of culture was played by a wealthy merchant population, service people, as well as exiled settlers. This led to a more democratic composition of representatives of creative professions than in the European part of the country. The absence of serfdom affected the cultural life of Siberia. This circumstance made it possible to less strictly implement the principle of social restrictions on admission to educational institutions, in acquiring literacy, and participation in cultural life in general. Russian culture in Siberia was influenced by aboriginal culture, and the influence of the East. Even the new culture brought from European Russia also experienced this influence. This led to the formation of local regional characteristics in the cultural life of the population.

Thus, the political actions of the government in the field of culture, associated with the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism, extended to the Siberian region without changes. The social and economic conditions of the region were quite conducive to the introduction and spread of a new culture, and the peculiar features of Siberia gave the character of culture a special local flavor. However, the reign of Catherine II, the organization of cultural institutions - schools, libraries, theaters, was made dependent on the income of the Orders of public charity, city magistrates, and the residents themselves, which led to their difficult financial situation.

The second paragraph "Siberian cities as centers of cultural development" considers the historical environment in which, first of all, changes took place that formed a new culture. The economic originality of the Siberian cities and their various historical destinies also determined the originality of the cultural life in Siberia. In this regard, certain cultural centers arose. The urban structure - the architectural appearance, the condition of the streets and public institutions - was the first thing that visitors who visited Siberian cities paid attention to. The cities of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II were characterized by a number of changes: the appearance of regular building and its clear regulation, the construction of stone buildings, since fires were a real natural disaster for cities. However, financial difficulties, lack of qualified craftsmen often slowed down the construction time. In accordance with the all-Russian trend, classical principles of buildings were introduced in Siberia along with the existing buildings in the Siberian baroque style, and not only European, but also oriental motifs were manifested in their appearance. In connection with the secularization of 1764, the number of religious buildings not only did not decrease, but increased more and more, a high concentration of churches in some cities of Siberia (Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk) determined their cultural appearance. Large sparsely populated Siberia had its own center - settlements along the Moscow-Siberian highway and merchant cities such as Tomsk, Yeniseisk. In these cities, civil buildings and religious buildings were often created in imitation of the metropolitan ones. The administration of cities began to care more about the improvement, culture, clear planning, however, the measures taken were not always effective. Remoteness from the capital, and from the European part of Russia as a whole, the paucity of architectural personnel - all this predetermined the provincial appearance of some cities. But the nature of the province played its positive role, giving the appearance of the cities of Siberia a unique flavor and unusualness.

The third paragraph discusses the role of the church in the cultural development of Siberia. The policy of the state in relation to churches and monasteries during the reign of Catherine II was quite tough. Gradually, they were made dependent on the state and ceased to play a leading role in cultural development. The same cannot be said about Siberia. After the secularization of 1764, the number of Siberian monasteries decreased, although the number of churches was constantly growing. The church continued to play an important role here and influenced not only cultural processes, but also the daily life of Siberians. Monasteries and churches in Siberia, in addition to ritual religious functions, had educational significance, being centers of education where there were no secular schools. The ideas of the Enlightenment, steadily leading to the separation of culture from the church, undoubtedly influenced the traditional culture of Siberia. The worldview of the Siberian population was based on different, sometimes directly opposite phenomena: the pagan rites of foreigners coexisted with the modern postulates of enlightenment, and the Orthodox canons were bizarrely combined with the strangest superstitions. Therefore, in the cultural and everyday life of Siberians, the church continued to play a leading role: it persecuted and punished the followers of schismatics (even despite the fact that they were officially rehabilitated by the government), rather severely punished those who deviated from generally accepted religious norms and traditions, and even population to secular pastime. It is noteworthy that in this respect the church actively cooperated with the secular authorities. In small villages remote from large cities, monasteries and churches played the role of educational and cultural centers, one of the main functions of which was the distribution of books, not only ecclesiastical, but also secular literature.

On the other hand, elements of secular traditions actively penetrated the church environment and influenced the way of life of the Siberian clergy. Obliging the population to strictly comply with all rituals and norms, the clergy themselves were not distinguished by impeccable behavior and performance of their official duties. All this, no doubt, somewhat turned people away from the church. Huge lists of people evading the performance of church rites throughout Siberia eloquently testify to this. Like many people of the 2nd half of the XVIII century. Siberians, and especially peasants, remained religious people, but they no longer felt special reverence for the church institution with its outward ritualism.

Second chapter“Changes in the content of culture during the reign of Catherine II” is also divided into three paragraphs. The first paragraph discusses the changes in the education system that took place in Siberia after the establishment of the main and small public schools. During 1789 - 1790. 13 public schools were organized on the territory of Siberia. Their opening was made dependent on the generosity of city councils, which soon began to be burdened by their content. To a lesser extent, this affected Siberia.

For the period from 1786 to the end of the 1790s. the number of students decreased. In Siberian schools, classes were conducted extremely unsystematically, students were accepted and eliminated continuously throughout the year. One of the main reasons for this was the lack of a need for education, an understanding of the need to study, and then apply their knowledge in life. School education, both in Western and Eastern Siberia after the Catherine's reform, was built in the same way as in other provinces, and the absence of serfdom made it possible to study for all categories of the population, since the school reform was designed for a mass student who did not have class privileges.

The problem was that the nobility and officials often preferred private education to schooling, having tutors and teachers for home schooling of their children. The philistines and merchants did not see the point in a comprehensive education, since for their activities they had enough ability to count and write. In rural areas, it was unprofitable for the authorities to organize educational institutions, and it was often more convenient for the peasants to hide their ability to count and write from the authorities. Parents of peasant children preferred to teach their children themselves. Thus, the old habits of the family and school were a serious obstacle to the spread of Catherine's schools in the provinces.

Another problem is the difficult material and moral situation of a teacher in a Russian school in general and in a Siberian school in particular. This situation was an inevitable consequence of society's attitude to the school. The position of teachers was not included in the "Table of Ranks", falling into the teaching rank, for the most part not of their own free will, but by appointment of the diocesan authorities, a teacher in the second half of the 18th century. unable to move up the social ladder. Also, the lack of interest in schools was largely facilitated by objective circumstances: the unsuitability of school premises, the poor material base for organizing the educational process, and the lack of qualified teachers.

The second paragraph is devoted to the cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population. For Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. fundamentally new was the emergence of books, theatrical business, the publication of literature and periodicals. All these processes also took place in European Russia, so it is not necessary to say that Siberia was cut off from the all-Russian cultural phenomena. The Decree "On Free Printing Houses" of 1783 gave impetus to the development of book printing and periodicals in Siberia. With the advent of printing houses in Siberia, about 20 titles of various publications came out of its walls, not counting magazines. The Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene and the Scientific Library were the only journals published in the provinces at that time, reflecting the most topical issues. Nevertheless, there were problems with the distribution of literature, it was difficult to find authors and subscribers, the population was not yet accustomed to this type of reading. The cost of a subscription to publications ranged from 8 to 15 rubles, which was very expensive for the bulk of the population (a pood of bread cost 12 kopecks).

During the reign of Catherine II, public libraries appeared in Siberia in large cities - Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, as well as private libraries in the homes of the most enlightened Siberians. With the advent of public libraries, modern literature has become more accessible to Siberians. The appearance of theater in Siberia is connected with the growth of the spiritual demands of the population. Amateur performances for a very long time were the only form of theatrical performances (in Omsk, Irkutsk), then in 1791 the first professional theater in Siberia was created in Tobolsk. The repertoire of the theaters reflected the trends of modern theater for the 2nd half of the 18th century. dramaturgy. It was possible to identify 94 titles of plays staged or intended to be staged in the theater (2 tragedies, 13 dramas, 44 comedies, 35 comic operas).

By the end of the XVIII century. the orientation of the Siberians to the secular standards of the new culture has intensified, although it has not yet penetrated deep, affecting only a little the life of certain segments of the population. The main consumers of secular cultural entertainment were, firstly, residents of large Siberian cities, and secondly, representatives of the upper classes - the nobility, officials, wealthy merchants.

Theaters, printing houses, public libraries were under the jurisdiction of orders of public charity. The material support of these institutions: maintenance, repair - largely depended on the income of orders, which predetermined their difficult situation. Local authorities in the era under study cared about Siberia to the same extent as the government in any other part of Russia. Concern for the cultural level of Siberia was often associated with the personality of an official holding a responsible post in a certain period, and depended on the degree of his education, as well as on the intensity and strength of his ties with St. Petersburg.

The third paragraph characterizes the changes in traditional rituals and festive entertainments of Siberians. In the 60-90s. 18th century many traditional calendar holidays were widely celebrated by both the rural population and the urban residents of Siberia. The townspeople preserved some public rituals with long traditions. Folk festivals were an indispensable accessory of both urban and rural holidays. Differences in the celebration of solemn dates were gradually erased, and traditional forms of festive leisure were replaced by new ones. In the countryside, peasants made up for the inaccessibility of urban entertainment on their own. Thus, the customs and rituals of folk holidays dedicated to various events included musical, choreographic works, theatrical performances, and decorative elements. Any holiday served as an occasion to demonstrate the best clothes, come up with an unusual fancy dress, sing or dance.

For all segments of the population, religious holidays associated with the calendar cycle were important. But in the style of their conduct, one can note a gradual removal from the actual religious, ritual meaning. To a greater extent, this affected urban residents - the nobility, merchants, and philistines. In some remote villages, calendar holidays were still given a sacred meaning, but basically it was reliably forgotten. Ritual actions, which were once magical rituals, in the time under study became just a game, a kind of form of filling leisure.

AT imprisonment summed up the results of the study. The process of changes in the spiritual life of Siberia, associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the "secularization" of culture, began in the 1st half of the 18th century, but basically fell in time during the reign of Catherine II. The spread of education, the development of science and art, the separation of the church from secular culture are the main doctrines of the cultural policy of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. All this undoubtedly affected Siberia as well. Changes in cultural life touched Siberia "from above" without touching the foundations. The reason was the too rapid pace of transformation in culture. Schools, libraries, theaters were created, but the majority of the population has not yet formed a need for them. At the same time, the book and theatrical business, the appearance of periodicals, contrary to popular belief, were not only a “front facade”. The development of these areas was accompanied by significant difficulties, sometimes innovations were simply not perceived by the population. Despite this, it was the politics of the Enlightenment that laid the foundation for culture for the future. The next generation, which began to receive education, already regarded its importance in the economic, social, and cultural life of the country in a different way. They have new moral and ethical norms and values: education, collecting cultural and antiquities, love for books, and charitable activities are becoming priorities. The study of the historical aspects of the Enlightenment shows that for the development of Russian culture in Siberia, the factor of strong influence of the center of the country was of fundamental importance. Therefore, in all areas of the cultural life of Siberia in the period under study, a single line of development with the culture of the European part of Russia is clearly traced.

1. Khait N.L. On the issue of studying the culture of Siberia in the 60-90s. 18th century / N.L. Khait // Spiritual and historical readings: Materials of interuniversity. scientific-practical. conf. Issue. VIII. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasGASA, 2003. - S. 283-287.
2. Khait N.L. Cultural appearance of Siberian cities and population in the 2nd half of the 18th century. through the eyes of foreigners / N.L. Chait // V Historical Readings: Sat. materials scientific-practical. conf. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasGU, 2005. - S. 193-195.
3. Khait N.L. Faith and Beliefs of the Siberian Population in Conditions of Enlightened Absolutism (Era of Catherine II) / N.L. Chait // Bulletin of the Krasnoyarsk State University. Humanite. science. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasGU, 2006. - S. 46-48.
4. Khait N.L. Cultural leisure of Siberians in the 2nd half of the 18th century. / N.L. Chait // VI Historical Readings: Sat. materials scientific-practical. conf. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasGU, 2006. - S. 35-40.
5. Khait N.L. The development of literary traditions and periodicals in Siberia in the era of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II / N.L. Chait // Book culture of Siberia: materials of the region. scientific-practical. conf. - Krasnoyarsk: GUNB, 2006. - S. 138-142.

The total volume of publications is 1.4 p.l.

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