The plastic anatomy of man and animals is described. The book was written by an artist with a higher medical education, due to which only the material that is of practical value for artists is presented; this and especially the presentation of the method of image on anatomical basis, the book compares favorably with other manuals of the same profile.
In the second edition of the book Plastic anatomy of a human, four-legged animals and birds”(the first was published in 1971), the visual material was expanded, showing the structure of humans, animals and birds, the text was revised and supplemented.
Designed for students of secondary specialized educational institutions of fine arts. Can be used in the practical work of the artist.
“To feel, to know, to be able is a complete art,” defines the art of an artist, an outstanding artist and teacher P. P. Chistyakov. Depicting a person, an animal, the artist must know its structure, its anatomy. “The hand consists of bones, tendons, muscles, covered with skin. To use it properly, you need to study the bones, build them in accordance ... ”says P.P. Chistyakov in another place, setting out his program requirements, and he, in a letter to P.F. Iseev, speaking about anatomy and perspective, with writes with chagrin: “The students know these subjects, but do they know how to apply them in practice? No! No! And no!
Do our contemporaries - artists know how to put into practice the knowledge of plastic anatomy, and if they don’t, then whose fault is it? These are the questions that should be of interest to artists-educators today, including the author of this book.
In the preface to the first, far from perfect edition of the book "Plastic Anatomy of Man, Quadrupeds and Birds", the author wrote that most textbooks on plastic anatomy do not fully correspond to the task pursued by its study - to provide direct assistance to students in mastering form. Textbooks talk about the individual elements of the form: bones, joints, muscles, but do not say anything about how these individual forms are assembled into a single whole. The textbooks do not say anything about the general constructive connecting role of the skeleton, about the interactions of parts of the skeleton in space, about the formation of generalized muscle arrays, about the entry of some arrays into others, that is, about muscle connection. Moreover, nothing is said about the most important - the final stage of the study of plastic anatomy - the anatomical construction of the picture.
Plastic anatomy is taught, and in the manuals it is presented in a very conscientious manner, with full knowledge of the factual material, but with such a "disengagement from production" that it does not achieve its direct goal. A student can conscientiously attend a course, and receive no information about the application of anatomy in practice when building a figure. Teachers of visual disciplines do not always use three-dimensional anatomical construction (although they study anatomy), they cannot freely master the drawing of a human figure, cannot use a model, but only copies the model, which leads to slavish dependence on the model, to a naturalistic drawing.
Disunity between the study of plastic anatomy and its application is characteristic of many manuals and methods of teaching this subject.
The author of the book "Plastic Anatomy of Man, Four-footed Animals and Birds" by education is an anatomist doctor and at the same time an artist - a professional who experienced this disunity in full, gropingly, with great difficulty overcame it, and in the process of teaching he gradually mastered plastic anatomy as a single visual discipline, including both information on plastic anatomy and anatomical construction.
When working on this book, the author tried to fill the gap that is mentioned here and present the subject as a single pictorial discipline. In addition, on the basis of comparative anatomy, that is, visually comparing and drawing parallels between the anatomical structure of humans, four-legged animals and birds, the author additionally outlined the brief information necessary for students about the anatomical structure of animals and the method of depicting them on constructive anatomical foundations.
Without increasing the amount of factual material presented (bones, joints, muscles that affect the external form and were already described in the first edition), the author focused on the plastic part of the presentation.
In the second edition, preliminary plastic reviews of parts of the living body are significantly expanded and refined, corresponding to the specific anatomical material that is currently being described. A student either in the classroom on a live model or at home on himself can immediately get a concrete idea of that part of the general (living body) body that he is currently studying.
The author hopes that the second revised and expanded edition will be accepted by students as well as the first one, especially since, despite the need to strictly adhere to a certain program (and maybe just for this reason), the book, in addition to students, can be useful to a wide range of artists and serve as a self-instruction manual and reference book for persons who have not studied plastic anatomy.
Plastic anatomy of man, four-legged animals and birds | M. Ts. Rabinovich | Buy books | ISBN 978-5-9916-7581-9
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Cats rule the internet! No doubt one day they will finally seize control of the world in general and humanity in particular. By drawing cats, you can understand what they are actually made of. But you need to know the enemy in person But seriously, in this lesson we will get acquainted with the anatomical structure of cats and learn how to correctly depict them in illustrations.
1. The structure of the cat's skeleton
Studying the structure of the skeleton is the first step to drawing a believable pose. Everything else rests on the bones, and it is they that primarily determine the range of possible movement of the body.
Luckily, we don't have to memorize the shape of each bone. It is enough to remember their length and the places in which they are connected to each other. The good news is that most four-legged animals have a similar skeletal structure. Only the length of the bones and the distance between them differ. Learn this material now, and you won't need to go back to these basics again.
You need to remember the structure of the skeleton as a group of ovals (joints, skull, chest, hips) and lines (bones, spine). After you remember this, you can draw any cat pose.
There is one more thing to remember: each joint has its own range of motion. If you violate these restrictions, your cat will look broken. To understand this range, take a close look at the animated picture below. While running, the cat uses its joints to the full extent. As you can see, all movements look natural.
What is worth noting:
You can say, "I don't need it. I feel correct posture". Perhaps, but there are a few mistakes that most people make due to simple inattention.
This is a popular way of depicting a skeleton. The mistake is due to the fact that we confuse the structure of the front and hind legs. It is different! Just compare your arms and legs.
The following pose is not natural, but is used quite often in animation when the characters move their paws like propellers. In the real world, the hind legs are not capable of more than 120 degrees of range of motion (even in cheetahs). Also, a real cat will strive to keep its head at the same level, and not lower it down (unless, of course, it's not a zombie cat - there are such in cartoons).
What an interesting skeletal structure! In this case, the bones just stick out of the thigh. The problem is that there are not only bones, but also, to a large extent, muscles. And this moment cannot be ignored. Also in the first pose we see the front legs tucked in and the hind legs sitting. Small cats eat in this position, but their chest is not on the ground. 
Another common mistake lies in habits. Cats during normal walking first carry two paws on one side, and then two paws on the other side. This mistake will go unnoticed by most people, but it will still be a mistake! True, during acceleration, cats switch to a “diagonal” movement of their paws.
You have learned all about poses. It's time to sketch your own drawing.
The structure of the cat's muscular skeleton
Muscles give the body shape. You can draw a body without understanding the structure of the muscular skeleton, but guessing is not our way. The learning process may seem complicated at first glance, but later you will see that in reality everything is much simpler.
To begin, add simplified muscle shapes to the sketch. Pretty simple! If your cat is going to be very fluffy, you won't need more. The muscles will still not be visible.
This is what our cat looks like after she has a basic set of muscles.
If you want to draw a smooth-haired cat, you will have to do more. Below you see the outlines of the largest muscles that can be seen. In order not to strain too much, just use this picture as a reference, and draw on it. After a few exercises, the structure will be remembered by itself.
Now our cat has a muscular relief!
Finally, one more thing. Cats have places in which the skin hangs freely, not tight to the muscles. If you have a cat, feel the area between the thigh and lower leg - you will feel only the skin and fur! Because of this feature of the skin, the thigh and lower leg are difficult to distinguish while the cat is sitting.
Draw these additional skin areas in your sketch.
3. How to draw cat paws
The hind and front paws of a cat are different from each other, just like our hands are different from our legs. You can use them to visualize the structure. Cats walk on tiptoe, using only part of the "palm" for support. They also have a “thumb” (in the form of a drop) and a small appendage (pea-shaped), but only on the front paws. The hind legs are generally very similar to our legs.
Cat paws are absolutely amazing. Their claws are "retractable", but they do not work quite the way we usually imagine. The claw is attached to the last bone of the finger. However, not to its extreme part, but closer to the base. Only when the claw is fully released does the connection move closer to the edge.
What does this mean for us? The claw, along with the small bone to which it is attached, is found on the outside of each toe. The claw is not symmetrically located on the finger! Look at the photos of Sphynx cats - they have no hair and the structure of the claws can be seen better.
Below you see an image of the left and right front paws with folded nails. Try repeating this position with your hands to see where the forearm ends and the foot begins.
Let's learn how to draw paws.
We will also need to add a bean-shaped shape (on the outside) for the hind legs, or an elongated shape (on the inside) for the front legs.
Now we will cover the entire paw with fur. Above the claws, the wool grows in a special way: we cover it with fur only on top and on the sides.
Fine. We figured out the paw with folded claws. But what about an angry cat that has released its claws? Everything is simple if you have mastered the anatomical part.
Now our cat has paws.
4. The proportions of the cat's head
Depending on the breed, cat faces differ from each other. But there are rules by which you can draw a "typical" cat face.
Draw two circles: one big, one smaller. These are simplified forms of the head and muzzle.
Divide the small circle into six approximately equal parts.
Divide the midline into about six equal parts. This will help us find the correct position for the nose and mouth.
Draw a regular triangle between the lines as shown below. You can also start drawing the mouth.
Draw the rest of the features of the muzzle using the lines as guidelines.
Now we will determine the place for the location of the eyes. Add four guide lines using the existing ones.
Now you just need to add the eyes.
If you are drawing a kitten, you need to change the proportions a bit and draw more rounded eyes of a larger size.
Add lines for the shapes of the ears and cheeks.
Drawing a head in profile is not more difficult if you know how to place the guide lines.
Now we know how to draw the shape for the head. But it's still just a sketch. In the following steps, we will look at each element individually.
5. How to draw cat eyes
If you went through the previous steps, you should have an oval like this as the base for the eye.
We have three elements around the eye itself: the edge of the lower eyelid, the upper lash line, and the dark area in the inner corner of the eye. Part of the third century can also be shown.
Draw the pupil:
Pupil size can play a role in the realism of an illustration. If you draw a cat sitting on a sunny beach or in front of a fire with a large round pupil, it will look unnatural.
Add dark streaks around the pupil and lighter ones in the rest of the eye. Position them in the direction from the pupil to the outer part of the eye.
The eye consists not only of the pupil and the apple. When you draw a human face, you draw in the eyelids, eyelashes, and eyebrows to make it appear more complete. For the cat's eye, we can add light areas around the eye and a dark hollow above it - this is a depression from which several vibrissae grow.
When the eyes are closed, the incision turns into a dark streak. The light areas get closer to each other.
You already know how the eyes should look. You can draw them on the muzzle.
6. Draw the cat's nose
Let's start with an elongated figure in the shape of a crystal. Its lower part is usually darker.
Draw two "wings" as nostrils.
Draw the nostrils. They don't look like human nostrils, so be careful.
Draw a bridge. It should be rounded at the top. Also on the sides of the bridge of the nose will be darker, and the hair on it will be shorter.
Now our cat has a nose!
7. How to draw cat ears
Cat ears are not as simple as they seem. These are not just triangles, but complex structures that need to be learned to make the drawing seem more realistic.
To draw the ear from the front, draw a circle. Then divide it into four parts by drawing lines at a slight angle.
Use guide lines to draw the outer outline of the ear.
Cats have a strange crease at the bottom of their ears. It's called "goat". It is quite difficult to draw it from this angle, but it is necessary. Draw a tragus and people will think you're a cat expert! :) 
Now you can draw tufts of hair. Their length and volume depends on the breed, but in general it is better to "fasten" the hair to the inside of the shell, leaving the outer bare. 
But cats can move their ears! What about all the other provisions? You can use the same method to create ears in any position. The main thing to remember is that the ear is actually much larger than it seems! The bottom part is usually covered with fur (and you will need to draw it too). Look at this photo and you will understand which part of the ear we see and which is hidden. 
Now our cat has ears! 
8. Draw a mustache for a cat
Whiskers, or whiskers, are another sense organ for a cat. Vibrissae grow above the cat's upper lip, above the eyes, above the chin, and behind the paws. These "hairs" grow from the dark "hollows" in the cat's fur. We have already drawn such hollows above the eyes. Now draw smaller ones on the muzzle. 
Cats have 12 whiskers on each side, but you don't have to strictly follow this number. 13 left, 15 right - all right! The main thing is to draw them thin and light. Also, their length should be more than half the length of the head. 
9. Draw wool
The length of the coat determines the shape of the head. The head of a cat without hair is triangular in shape. The more wool, the smoother the shape of the head. Draw a medium-length coat on the cat and the head will become round (by the way, this is why kittens seem cuter to us). If your cat is long-haired, then the shape of her head becomes trapezoidal. 
The shape of the body also depends on the length of the coat. Short hair will emphasize the cat's thin body, long hair will make it look bigger. If you are just learning to draw, always start with short hair. Then experiment with the length as you wish. 
The author of the lesson Monika Zagrobelna
Translation - Desk
The textbook describes the plastic anatomy of humans and animals. The author of the book is an artist with a medical education, thanks to which only the material that has practical value for artists is presented. The book was written by an artist with a higher medical education, due to which only the material that is of practical value for artists is presented; this and especially the presentation of the method of image on anatomical basis, the book compares favorably with other manuals of the same profile. The book contains a large number of images: the construction and schemes of the joints, muscles and other organs, examples of figure building, preliminary plastic reviews of body parts and an anatomical review of eight human figures in different poses, as well as classical drawings of the best masters of the Russian school. This textbook is a good base for studying the course. Designed for students of fine arts. It can be useful in the practical work of the artist and serve as a self-instruction manual for people who have not studied plastic anatomy.
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Wolves are very common characters in fairy tales and cartoons. From a very young age, children begin to be interested in: “But how to draw a wolf?” They begin to ask their parents, grandmothers, brothers and sisters to draw this beast for them.
What do you need to know in order to please your beloved child, and to be satisfied with the work done yourself?
For creativity, you should arm yourself with:
Before you start drawing, experienced artists recommend studying the anatomy of a wolf, viewing photos and images with this animal, and deciding on a pose. Beginning painters make their sketches from photographs. In this case, the picture does not move, which simplifies the task, the borders of the image are also visible. Any domestic dog can become an excellent sitter. Watching her, making some sketches, you can get a great experience and understand the anatomy of a wolf. After all, dogs are very similar to wolves in their structure.
So, having decided on the pose, you should not immediately work out the fine details of the picture. To begin with, you should make a few sketches: simple shapes, proportions in which the poses of the animal are guessed, its head, limbs, body.
The sketches should have something that distinguishes the wolf from dogs, foxes and other similar animals.
To make the wolf voluminous, you should once again turn to the collected collection of images, carefully study them. And then start creating. For beginners, even carbon copy work is allowed to give the sketches the correct shape. In education, all means are good. In the sketch, the muscles look like ovals, the bones look like simple lines. Do not clutter up the image with unnecessary details.
You need to pay attention to the grin, the position of the ears, nose, eyes, learn how to correctly convey the proportions of the wolf's head. This is how the muzzle of the wolf is worked out. The anatomy of a wolf for drawing is very important if the artist seeks to draw an animal that is close to reality. The more options he works out, the better he will feel the animal, its habits, mood, character.
This will help make the wolf in the drawing more alive, real. It is necessary to make several sketches of the limbs from different angles, in different positions.
Art students, who strive to depict the animal as realistically as possible, study the anatomy of the wolf, repeatedly visit zoos, where they make many sketches from nature. This gives an invaluable experience that will be useful in the future for real artists.
It is necessary to put all the sketches together in order to get the final result. Realizing that it is a very difficult job to redraw the same limb, or head, or tail many times, some young artists resort to tricks. If they are sure that the anatomy of the wolf, its proportions are thoroughly worked out in the sketches, then the individual parts are assembled under carbon paper or glass.
At an early stage of drawing, it is not shameful to use cells, so as not to be mistaken in proportions, as well as other people's developments. When assembling sketches of wolf body parts, do not rush. Before taking any step, you need to look around very carefully, determine the exact position of a particular part of the body.
Do not be upset if the anatomy of a wolf is not immediately given, biology is not a science of their lungs. If you do not give up and continue to work, using all the above methods and tricks, then you can certainly achieve the desired result. To do this, you need to add shadows to the image. They usually start with the nose, bumps under the paws. They work with a pencil at an angle, which can later be rubbed with a simple piece of paper, using it as a palette. Then proceed to the division of the paws among themselves.
When all the parts of the wolf's body are put together, it's time to start transferring the long-awaited volume. The anatomy of a wolf plays a key role for the artist. All unnecessary lines are erased with an eraser, wolf fur is added. In the process of coloring the wolf with the help of light and shadow, volume is given to the figure. In nature, there are no clear outlines, corners, the rule of lines of three-dimensional figures works: fat-fat-thick-thin-almost transparent-thin-thick-fat-fat. The parts of the wolf located in the foreground are drawn more clearly, those in the background are softer.
These are the tips of professionals that will help you achieve excellent results in drawing.
Beginning artists who just want to try their hand can arm themselves with a pencil, eraser, sheet of paper and a photograph of a wolf.
In conclusion, I would like to say that it is never too late to start drawing. The main quality of a future artist is a desire, as well as a sufficient amount of time, effort and patience. Do not despair if it does not work out the first time, regret the time spent, paper and pencils. It is important not to quit what you started. Over time, the hand and eye will feel the volumes and proportions, wonderful drawings will be obtained. All great artists started with sketches and sketches.
M.Ts. Rabinovich
The plastic anatomy of humans and animals is described. The book was written by an artist with a higher medical education, due to which only the material that is of practical value for artists is presented; this and especially the presentation of the method of image on anatomical basis, the book compares favorably with other manuals of the same profile.
Designed for students of secondary specialized educational institutions of fine arts. Can be used in the practical work of the artist.
Publishing house "Higher school", 1978.
David McDonald
This is the first edition in Russian of a unique encyclopedia, which has no analogues in the world, prepared by Oxford University Press. The encyclopedia is a fundamental summary of ideas about the biology, distribution and conservation status of all groups of modern mammals. Its most important part is the classifier - the first complete list of species in recent decades with their names in Russian. The main text is supplemented by a Russian-English explanatory dictionary of scientific terms. Over 10,000 illustrations.
Publishing house "Omega", 2007.
Wilhelm Tank
This Edition is an authorized translation of the original German edition of "W Tank. Kleine Tieranatomis", published in Dresden in 1955. Text and illustrations by Wilhelm Tank. The work of the German professor acquaints the reader with the structural features of the bodies of various animals fundamental for the artist, teaches him to consciously convey the external form, coordinating its characteristic features with the internal structure of the body. The book is indispensable for anyone who seeks to master the classical techniques of artistic creativity and learn how to masterfully convey the characteristic and most expressive features of representatives of the animal world.
LLC "Publishing House Astrel", 2004
Jack Hamm
The book outlines the basics of drawing human heads and figures, presents more than a thousand step-by-step illustrations.
This book, created by an American artist back in 1962, does not lose its appeal to a wide range of emerging artists.
Publishing house "Poppuri", Minsk, 2007.
Enyo Barchai
Jeno Barchai is a professor who taught for many years at the Budapest Higher School of Fine Arts. This book is the result of many years of his teaching activity.
It is well known that without knowledge of anatomy it is impossible to correctly convey the features of a human figure, the nature of his movements. Professor Barchai uses the method of artistic representation to show the human body. His anatomical drawings are not only accurate reproductions of human bones and muscular systems, but also works of artistic value. The book is a good reference for a novice artist in studying the structure of the human body. It is of great interest to every master of fine arts, as well as to all those who have anything to do with art, because it introduces the eternal theme of fine art - the human body, in a public and artistic way.
CJSC Publishing House EKSMO-Press, serial design, 2000.
George Bridgeman
This book is a collection of Bridgman's anatomical structures, his method of depicting the human body, his writings on the structure of the head and face. The results of all his work during his life, all his artistic and teaching practice are included in this book.
