For a long time, literary criticism was dominated by the assertion that at the end of the 19th century Russian realism was undergoing a deep crisis, a period of decline, under the sign of which realistic literature of the beginning of the new century developed until the emergence of a new creative method - socialist realism.
However, the state of the literature itself opposes this assertion. The crisis of bourgeois culture, which manifested itself sharply at the end of the century on a world scale, cannot be mechanically identified with the development of art and literature.
Russian culture of that time had its negative aspects, but they were not all-encompassing. Domestic literature, always associated in its peak phenomena with progressive social thought, did not change this even in the 1890s and 1900s, marked by the rise of social protest.
The growth of the labor movement, which showed the emergence of the revolutionary proletariat, the emergence of the Social Democratic Party, peasant unrest, the all-Russian scope of student actions, the increasing expression of protest by the progressive intelligentsia, one of which was a demonstration at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg in 1901 - all this spoke of a decisive a turning point in public sentiment in all strata of Russian society.
A new revolutionary situation arose. Passivity and pessimism of the 80s. have been overcome. All were seized with the expectation of decisive change.
Talk about the crisis of realism at the time of the heyday of Chekhov's talent, the emergence of a talented galaxy of young democratic writers (M. Gorky, V. Veresaev, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, etc.), at the time of Leo Tolstoy's speech with the novel " Resurrection is impossible. In the 1890-1900s. Literature experienced not a crisis, but a period of intense creative search.
Realism changed (the problems of literature and its artistic principles changed), but did not lose its strength and its significance. His critical pathos, which reached its ultimate power in the Resurrection, has not dried up either. Tolstoy gave in his novel a comprehensive analysis of Russian life, its social institutions, its morality, its "virtue" and everywhere found social injustice, hypocrisy and lies.
G. A. Byaly rightly wrote: “The denunciatory power of Russian critical realism at the end of the 19th century, during the years of direct preparation for the first revolution, reached such an extent that not only major events in people’s lives, but also the smallest everyday facts began to act as symptoms of perfect trouble public order."
Life after the reform of 1861 had not yet had time to “fit in”, but it was already becoming clear that a strong enemy was beginning to confront capitalism in the person of the proletariat, and that social and economic contradictions in the development of the country were becoming more and more complicated. Russia stood on the threshold of new complex changes and upheavals.
New heroes, showing how the old worldview is collapsing, how established traditions are breaking down, the foundations of the family, the relationship between fathers and children - all this spoke of a radical change in the problem of "man and environment". The hero begins to confront her, and this phenomenon is no longer isolated. Those who did not notice these phenomena, who did not overcome the positivist determinism of their characters, lost the attention of readers.
Russian literature displayed both acute dissatisfaction with life, and the hope for its transformation, and strong-willed tension, ripening in the masses. Young M. Voloshin wrote to his mother on May 16 (29), 1901, that the future historian of the Russian revolution “will look for its causes, symptoms and trends both in Tolstoy, and in Gorky, and in Chekhov’s plays, as historians of the French revolution see them in Rousseau and Voltaire and Beaumarchais.
The awakening civic consciousness of people, the thirst for activity, social and moral renewal of society, come to the fore in the realistic literature of the beginning of the century. V. I. Lenin wrote that in the 70s. “The crowd was still asleep. Only at the beginning of the 1990s did its awakening begin, and at the same time a new and more glorious period began in the history of all Russian democracy.
The turn of the century was a time of romantic expectations, usually preceded by major historical events. The very air seemed to be saturated with a call to action. Noteworthy is the judgment of A. S. Suvorin, who, not being a supporter of progressive views, nevertheless followed Gorky’s work in the 1990s with great interest: that something needs to be done! And this should be done in his writings – it was necessary.”
The tonality of the literature changed perceptibly. Gorky's words that the time for the heroic has come are widely known. He himself appears as a revolutionary romantic, as a singer of the heroic principle in life. The feeling of a new tone of life was also characteristic of other contemporaries. Much evidence can be cited to show that readers expected writers to call for vigor and struggle, and publishers, who caught these sentiments, wanted to contribute to the emergence of such calls.
Here is one such evidence. On February 8, 1904, a novice writer N. M. Kataev informs Gorky’s comrade from the Znanie publishing house K. P. Pyatnitsky that the publisher Orekhov refused to publish a volume of his plays and stories: the publisher aims to print books of “heroic content”, and in Kataev's works do not even have a "cheerful tone".
Russian literature reflected the beginning in the 90s. the process of straightening the previously oppressed personality, revealing it both in the awakening of the consciousness of the workers, and in the spontaneous protest against the old world order, and in the anarchist rejection of reality, like the Gorky tramps.
The process of straightening was complex and covered not only the "lower classes" of society. Literature has covered this phenomenon in many ways, showing what unexpected forms it sometimes takes. In this regard, Chekhov turned out to be insufficiently understood, striving to show with what difficulty - "drop by drop" - a person overcomes the slave in himself.
Usually, the scene of Lopakhin's return from the auction with the news that the cherry orchard now belongs to him was interpreted in the spirit of the newly-minted owner's intoxication with his material strength. But Chekhov has something else behind this.
Lopakhin buys an estate where the gentlemen fought his disenfranchised relatives, where he himself spent a joyless childhood, where his relative Firs still servilely serves. Lopakhin is intoxicated, but not so much with his bargain, but with the consciousness that he, a descendant of serfs, a former barefoot boy, is becoming higher than those who previously claimed to completely depersonalize their "slaves". Lopakhin is intoxicated with the consciousness of his equalization with the bars, which separates his generation from the first buyers of forests and estates of the ruined nobility.
History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983
8. Literature of the early 20th century. Development of artistic and ideological and moral traditions of Russian classical literature. The originality of realism in Russian literature of the early 20th century. Realism and modernism, a variety of literary styles, schools, groups.
Plan
B) Literary trends
A) Russian literature of the early 20th century: general characteristics.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. became the time of the bright flowering of Russian culture, its "silver age" ("golden age" was called Pushkin's time). In science, literature, art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, different directions, groupings and styles competed. At the same time, the culture of the "Silver Age" was characterized by deep contradictions, characteristic of the entire Russian life of that time.
The rapid breakthrough of Russia in development, the clash of different ways and cultures changed the self-consciousness of the creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, the analysis of social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Revived interest in religion; the religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the critical era not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of the coming social explosions, that the whole habitual way of life, the whole old culture, could perish. Some were waiting for these changes with joy, others - with longing and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Literature developed under different historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, then it will be the word "crisis". Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world, led to a paradoxical conclusion: "matter has disappeared." The new vision of the world, thus, will also determine the new face of the realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating to the human spirit was a crisis of faith (“God is dead!” exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of non-religious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence, which turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a sense of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values will be formed.
Renewal of literature, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the onset of the "silver age" of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name of N. Berdyaev, who used it in one of his speeches in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later, the art critic and editor of "Apollo" S. Makovsky reinforced this phrase by naming his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age." Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write "... the silver month is bright / The silver age has grown cold."
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be described as follows: 1892 - the exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of a social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, the mass emigration of figures of Russian culture from Russia that began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
B) Literary trends
Russian literature of the 20th century was represented by three main literary movements: realism, modernism, and the literary avant-garde. Schematically, the development of literary trends at the beginning of the century can be shown as follows:
Senior Symbolists: V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, F.K. Sologub and others.
Mystics-Godseekers: D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, N. Minsky.
Decadents-individualists: V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, F.K. Sologub.
Junior Symbolists: A.A. Blok, Andrey Bely (B.N. Bugaev), V.I. Ivanov and others.
Acmeism: N.S. Gumilyov, A.A. Akhmatova, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Zenkevich, V.I. Narbut.
Cubofuturists (poets of "Gilea"): D.D. Burlyuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, A.E. Twisted.
Egofuturists: I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev, K. Olimpov, V. Gnedov.
Group "Mezzanine of Poetry": V. Shershenevich, Khrisanf, R. Ivnev and others.
Association "Centrifuge": B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, S.P. Bobrov and others.
One of the most interesting phenomena in the art of the first decades of the 20th century was the revival of romantic forms, largely forgotten since the beginning of the last century. One of these forms was proposed by V.G. Korolenko, whose work continues to develop at the end of the 19th century and the first decades of the new century. Another expression of the romantic was the work of A. Green, whose works are unusual for their exoticism, flight of fancy, ineradicable dreaminess. The third form of the romantic was the work of revolutionary workers' poets (N. Nechaev, E. Tarasova, I. Privalov, A. Belozerov, F. Shkulev). Turning to marches, fables, appeals, songs, these authors poeticize heroic deeds, use romantic images of a glow, fire, crimson dawn, thunderstorm, sunset, limitlessly expand the range of revolutionary vocabulary, resort to cosmic scales.
A special role in the development of literature of the 20th century was played by such writers as Maxim Gorky and L.N. Andreev. The twenties are a difficult, but dynamic and creatively fruitful period in the development of literature. Although many figures of Russian culture were expelled from the country in 1922, while others went into voluntary emigration, artistic life in Russia does not stop. On the contrary, there are many talented young writers, recent participants in the Civil War: L. Leonov, M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, Yu. Libedinsky, A. Vesely, and others.
The thirties began with the "year of the great turning point", when the foundations of the former Russian way of life were sharply deformed, and the active intervention of the party in the sphere of culture began. P. Florensky, A. Losev, A. Voronsky and D. Kharms are being arrested, repressions against the intelligentsia intensified, which claimed the lives of tens of thousands of cultural figures, two thousand writers died, in particular N. Klyuev, O. Mandelstam, I. Kataev, and Babel, B. Pilnyak, P. Vasiliev, A. Voronsky, B. Kornilov. Under these conditions, the development of literature was extremely difficult, tense and ambiguous.
The work of such writers and poets as V.V. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Akhmatova, A.N. Tolstoy, E.I. Zamyatin, M.M. Zoshchenko, M.A. Sholokhov, M.A. Bulgakov, A.P. Platonov, O.E. Mandelstam, M.I. Tsvetaeva.
C) The originality of Russian realism in the early 20th century.
Realism, as is known, appeared in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century and throughout the century existed within the framework of its critical current. However, symbolism, which made itself known in the 1890s - the first modernist trend in Russian literature - sharply opposed itself to realism. Following symbolism, other non-realist movements arose. This inevitably led to a qualitative transformation of realism as a method of depicting reality.
The symbolists expressed the opinion that realism only glides over the surface of life and is not able to penetrate the essence of things. Their position was not infallible, but since then the confrontation and mutual influence of modernism and realism began in Russian art.
It is noteworthy that modernists and realists, outwardly striving for delimitation, internally had a common aspiration for a deep, essential knowledge of the world. It is not surprising, therefore, that the writers of the turn of the century, who considered themselves realists, understood how narrow the framework of consistent realism was, and began to master syncretic forms of narration that made it possible to combine realistic objectivity with romantic, impressionistic and symbolist principles.
If the realists of the 19th century paid close attention to the social nature of man, then the realists of the 20th century correlated this social nature with psychological, subconscious processes, expressed in the clash of reason and instinct, intellect and feelings. Simply put, the realism of the early twentieth century pointed to the complexity of human nature, which is by no means reducible only to his social being. It is no coincidence that Kuprin, Bunin, and Gorky have a plan of events, the environment is barely indicated, but a refined analysis of the character's spiritual life is given. The author's gaze is always directed beyond the limits of the characters' spatial and temporal existence. Hence - the appearance of folklore, biblical, cultural motifs and images, which made it possible to expand the boundaries of the narrative, to attract the reader to co-creation.
At the beginning of the 20th century, four currents were distinguished within the framework of realism:
1) critical realism continues the traditions of the 19th century and involves an emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (at the beginning of the 20th century, these were the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy),
2) socialist realism - the term of Ivan Gronsky, denoting the depiction of reality in its historical and revolutionary development, the analysis of conflicts in the context of the class struggle, and the actions of heroes - in the context of benefits for humanity ("Mother" by M. Gorky, and later - most of the works of Soviet writers ),
3) mythological realism developed in ancient literature, however, in the 20th century under M.R. they began to understand the image and understanding of reality through the prism of well-known mythological plots (in foreign literature, a striking example is the novel by J. Joyce "Ulysses", and in Russian literature of the early 20th century - the story "Judas Iscariot" by L.N. Andreev)
4) naturalism involves the depiction of reality with the utmost likelihood and detail, often unsightly ("Pit" by A.I. Kuprin, "Sanin" by M.P. Artsybashev, "Notes of a Doctor" by V.V. Veresaev)
The listed features of Russian realism caused numerous disputes about the creative method of writers who remained faithful to realistic traditions.
Gorky begins with neo-romantic prose and comes to the creation of social plays and novels, becoming the founder of socialist realism.
Andreev's work has always been in a borderline state: modernists considered him a "contemptible realist", and for realists, in turn, he was a "suspicious symbolist". At the same time, it is generally accepted that his prose is realistic, and his dramaturgy gravitates towards modernism.
Zaitsev, showing interest in the microstates of the soul, created impressionistic prose.
Attempts by critics to define Bunin's artistic method led the writer himself to compare himself with a suitcase pasted over with a huge number of labels.
The complex worldview of realist writers, the multidirectional poetics of their works testified to the qualitative transformation of realism as an artistic method. Thanks to a common goal - the search for the highest truth - at the beginning of the 20th century there was a convergence of literature and philosophy, which was outlined even in the work of Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of modernism:
1) an idealistic attitude towards reality - consciousness is recognized as primary;
2) the desire to create their own new reality in the works, and not to describe the existing one;
3) in the works, as a rule, not objects of reality are recreated, but those images that have already been created in world culture, with the aim of their deeper understanding;
4) the concept of a text becomes the main category of modernism, which is recognized as the highest reality and is formed not by reflecting the objects of reality, but by reproducing and comprehending "cultivated" objects localized in predecessor texts;
5) the idea of constructing a text as a “journey” through the labyrinths of a deeply individualized consciousness, often characterized by a pathological character, is overvalued for modernism;
6) technically complicated manner of writing.
RUSSIAN MODERNISM OF THE LATE XIX - BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY
Currents, directions, schools
Russian modernism of the late XIX - early XX
pre-symbolism
Symbolism
Poetry schools of the 10s.
I. Annensky
early K. Balmont
Elder symbolism
symbolism
futurism
Moscow school
Petersburg school
A. Bely A. Blok
S. Solovyov
M. Kuzmin
N. Gumilyov
A.Akhmatova O.Mandel-shtam
V. Bryusov
K. Balmont
D. Merezhkovsky
Z. Gippius F. Sologub
D. Burliuk,
N. Burliuk,
E. Guro, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov
I. Severyanin
RUSSIAN REALISM OF THE LATE XIX - BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY
Typology
Russian realism of the late XIX - early XX
Classical
"Natural"
Philosophical-psychological
Heroic-romantic
Expressionistic
L.N. Tolstoy
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Literature:
1. Sokolov A.G.
2. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. - M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
3. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
4. History of Russian Literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
5. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. - M., 1998.
6. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
Topic 3. The specifics of realism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries
1. Typology of realism: classical realism, philosophical and psychological realism, "natural" realism, expressionistic realism, socialist realism. Neonaturalism.
2. Features of poetics.
Realism(from lat. realis - material, real) - a trend in world art that became widespread in the second half of the 19th century, manifesting itself in subsequent eras of cultural development.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of realism:
1) worldview foundations - the ideas of materialism and positivism;
2) the desire for an objective image of life, which is achieved by following the principles of a) social; b) historical; c) psychological determinism (conditionality) of images;
3) nationality;
4) historicism;
5) an attempt to present the world in all its complexity and inconsistency, but at the same time integral;
6) the desire to know the laws of reality in order to change it for the better;
7) understanding of art as a means of man's knowledge of himself and the surrounding reality;
8) the absence of taboo topics, because the basic requirements for art are reliability, accuracy, truthfulness.
9) a hero is an ordinary person, as a rule, a typical representative of a specific historical era, a certain social circle.
* Some literary theorists deny the existence of realism as a literary trend, believing that from the end of the 18th to the middle of the 20th century, romanticism existed in art, within which three stages are distinguished: romanticism proper, late romanticism (what is traditionally called realism) and post-romanticism (traditionally - modernism).
Features of Russian realism of the late XIX - early XX century:
1) transitional character (If in the second half of the 19th century realism was the central trend in art, then at the turn of the century modernism began to compete with it, significantly influencing it.);
2) heterogeneity (Practically each of the realist authors understands realism in his own way, expressing his ideas about it through an appeal to the traditions of romanticism (M. Gorky, V. Korolenko), expressionism (L. Andreev), impressionism (A.P. Chekhov ) and etc.);
3) preference is given to small epic forms (the genre of the novel, which is central to the realistic prose of the second half of the 19th century, is practically supplanted by the genres of the story, novella.);
4) the attraction of realistic works of the epic genre to lyricism;
5) the desire to create symbolic images.
Types of Russian realism of the late XIX - early XX century
Classical
"Natural" realism
Philosophical-psychological realism
Heroic-romantic realism
Expressionist realism
L.N. Tolstoy
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Each individual person is a whole world, therefore, knowledge of the laws of being is possible only through understanding the world of a separate human person.
The highest achievements in Russian art are associated with realism, so it is necessary to continue its traditions. The main goal of a realist of the turn of the century is to help a person who has lost his orientation in a changed world, to support him.
The most striking realization of the idea "man is the universe." If you want to know the world, know the man. Basis: philosophy of anthropocosmism
Ideological bias and political tendentiousness of literature; not an individual, but a collective principle becomes a priority; when creating an image, the factor of social conditioning is put at the forefront.
Realistic images should be so bright, impressive, so that the reader experiences an emotional shock.
Literature:
1. Literary encyclopedic dictionary / pp. V. Kozhevnikov and P. Nikolaev - M., 1987.
2. Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature. - M., 1999.
3. Rudnev V. Dictionary of culture of the twentieth century. - M., 1999.
4. Rudnev V. Encyclopedic dictionary of culture of the XX century. - M., 2001.
5. Sokolov A.G.. History of Russian literature of the late 19th-20th century. - M., 1999.
6. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. - M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
7. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
8. History of Russian Literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
9. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. - M., 1998.
10. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Byaly G.A. Russian realism, late 19th century - L., 1973.
12. Keldysh V.A. Russian realism of the beginning of the 20th century - M., 1975.
Topic 4. The fate of realism in the work of V. Veresaev, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, L. Andreev
1. "Natural Realism" by V. Veresaev and A. Kuprin. Veresaev's artistic chronicle and Kuprin's extensive way of writing.
2. M. Gorky: mythology of reality.
3. Expressionistic paradigm in the work of L. Andreev.
V.V. Veresaev
The specificity of the worldview, due to the collapse of populist ideals. The text as an "artistic chronicle of the life of the intelligentsia" of the frontier period. Themes and problems: the theme of the intelligentsia, the peasant theme, the theme of the mission of art. Late Veresaev: artistic literary criticism.
A.I. Kuprin
An extensive way of knowing being. The specifics of the search and acquisition of a hero. Plot features: rehabilitation of the adventurous-adventure element. Dostoevsky and Nietzsche in the artistic mind of the writer. The elemental element in Kuprin's prose. Theme and problems. Naturalistic component in the writer's artistic system.
"Garnet bracelet"
Genre: story
Subject: the love story of a petty official Zheltkov for Princess Vera Nikolaevna Sheina
Problem: searching for an answer to the question “What is true love? What does she require from a person?
Style: realistic with pronounced elements of romanticism
The concept of love in the story
Concept
The essence of the concept
Examples from the text
Love in submission Zheltkova
Love is a chivalrous service to the Beautiful Lady. This feeling does not require an answer, does not insist on anything. Love presupposes complete self-denial, since only the happiness and peace of the beloved is of importance to the lover. The suffering caused by love is accepted as a blessing, since true love, even if unrequited, is the highest happiness that can be sent to a person.
For example, a letter to Princess Vera on her name day, a farewell letter.
Love in submission
Prince Vasily
Love in the life of a modern person is a somewhat comical feeling: it has a place more in old novels than in reality, where ardent passion often turns into a funny anecdote. The most logical way to develop a feeling of love is to develop it into a feeling of friendship. However, this confidence somewhat fluctuates after the meeting with Zheltkov.
For example, the album of Prince Vasily, which contains illustrated semi-anecdotal stories of love interests, the heroes of which are people of his closest circle (Vera, Lyudmila, etc.)
Love in submission
Faith
True love has not yet touched her. Having not experienced this feeling herself, she is content with the calm, even, more friendly than love relations that have been established between her and Prince Vasily. Zheltkov's death demonstrates to her the power of true love, fulfilling his last will, she experiences a kind of catharsis - purification through suffering. Thus, she comes close to understanding the true essence of love.
For example, the final scenes of the story: visiting Zheltkov’s apartment after his death and saying goodbye to him, feelings and thoughts caused by Beethoven’s music, the feeling that they and Prince Vasily will no longer be able to live as before.
Love in submission
Anna
The main thing in life is to get the maximum of impressions and pleasures. Love in reality is most successfully realized in the form of light flirting, which does not make anyone suffer, bringing only joy and entertainment.
For example, scenes with Vasyuchok, a gift idea for Vera - an old prayer book, converted into a ladies' notebook.
Love in the view of the general Anosova
The love stories told by the old general most vividly confirm the concept of love, which Zheltkov is the bearer of in the story: true love requires self-sacrifice, self-denial from a person. He is the first to understand that Vera's life path was crossed by the same "love that all women dream of, but which men are no longer capable of." The emasculation of the essence of love, from the point of view of General Anosov, will lead to catastrophic consequences for humanity.
For example, the scene of an evening walk after Vera's name day is the memoirs of General Anosov (love stories).
A.M. Bitter
The "medium" role of Gorky's personality in Russian cultural life at the turn of the century. The specificity of the romantic paradigm in his early work: epigonism or neo-mythologization (transformation of the mythology of the Old Testament and rethinking of Nietzsche's mythology). Anarchist and systematizing tendencies in artistic thinking. Prose of early Gorky. The novel "Mother" - "The Gospel of Maxim"?
Pre-October creativity of A.M. Gorky (1868-1936): the play "At the Bottom"
Genre-content features of the play -
Paintings. Later changes took place, caused mainly by significant social changes in society, which shifted the focus in the visual arts towards realism. Term realism appeared thanks to the French writer Champfleury in the mid-19th century, when the artist Gustave Courbet, after his work (the Artist's Workshop) was rejected at the World Exhibition in Paris, built his own tent next to the exhibition, and organized his own, called "Le Realism" (Le Realisme).
Artist's workshop
The style of realistic painting has spread to almost all genres of fine art, including portraiture, landscape and history.
A favorite subject for realist artists are scenes of rural and urban life, the life of the working class, scenes from the streets, coffee and clubs, as well as frankness in the depiction of bodies. Not surprisingly, the unusual method shocked many people from the middle and upper classes in both France and England, where realism never caught on.
Parquet flooring. Caillebotte.
The general trend of realism was the desire to move away from the "ideal", as was customary in the depiction of ancient mythology by the masters of the Renaissance. In this way, realists portrayed ordinary people and situations. In this sense, the movement reflects a progressive and highly influential shift in defining the meaning of art in general. The style remains quite popular in our time, despite the fact that it became a harbinger of impressionism and pop art.
Interesting representatives of early realism are: Jean-Francois Millet, Gustave Courbet, Honore Daumier. In addition, it is worth mentioning Ilya Repin. Some of the works of this Russian master are recognized as outstanding in this genre.
Courbet self-portrait
After horrific wars, global depression, nuclear testing and other events, the realists of the 20th century had no shortage of plots and ideas. Indeed, modern realism manifested itself in a wide variety of forms, images and schools, influencing not only painting, but also other areas of art.
This Italian term refers to the extreme realism common in Italy.
Silvestro Lega on the beach
A movement that originated in America. Precisionist enthusiasts painted scenes from urban and industrial environments in a futurist manner. Prominent artists include Charles Sheeler, Georgia O'Keeffe and Charles Demuth.
Artists of the "social realism" genre described scenes from the life of Americans during the Great Depression and concentrated on ordinary issues and the complexities of everyday life.
A type of public art approved by Stalin during the industrialization of the country. Socialist realism celebrated the new man and worker in the form of colossal murals, posters, and other forms of art.
Soft construction. Dali.
The whimsical art form has its roots in Paris. The Surrealists, whose ideas were originally based on the work of Sigmund Freud, sought to unleash the creative potential of the unconscious mind. There are two main types of surrealist art - Fantasy (the artists of this trend include Salvador Dali, Rene Magritte) and automatism (Juan Miro). Despite all the strangeness and relatively short peak of popularity, the style has a lasting impact on the current day. It is worth noting the magical realism, which combines images of everyday reality and fantasy.
Many artists, including Grant Wood (author of the popular American Gothic, written in this genre), John Stuart Curry, Thomas Hart Benton, Andrew Wyeth, and others, have sought to capture specific American imagery.
Photorealism appeared in the late 1960s, when some paintings became almost identical to photographs. The objects of the direction are banal and uninteresting objects masterfully depicted by the artist. One of the first artists of the genre was Richard Estes. His work is striking and gives insight into this movement.
In the early 1970s, a radical form of realistic art emerged, also known as super-realism and hyper-realism.
Of course, these are not all styles and subspecies of realism, since there are a huge number of subgenres based, among other things, on the traditions and culture of a particular area.
Realism in painting updated: September 15, 2017 by: Gleb
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the struggle between the realistic and decadent currents reached its peak in the cultural life of European countries. The people did not accept works created in the spirit of decadence, as there was a need for realistic works that clearly and truthfully reflect life.
Realist writers strove for a bold and truthful reflection of the surrounding reality. Therefore, this period was called realism, or critical realism. During this period, representatives of Russian literature F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov opened up new possibilities of realistic creativity for foreign contemporaries.
Guy de Maupassant is an incomparable creator who, in his works "Life", "Dear Friend", "MontAuriol" and others, skillfully exposed the social problems of French society.
The work of the American writer J. London was distinguished by radical moods. His utopian novel The Iron Heel contains a warning of catastrophe and terrible torment, possibly awaiting humanity. In the autobiographical work Martin Eden, the writer reveals clashes in the field of art.
In the novels of the American writer T. Dreiser "The Financier", "Titan" a generalized image of a typical American monopolist, uncrowned king, rich man Cowperwood is conveyed, who uses fraudulent methods, lies, and bribery in the struggle for enrichment.
R. Rolland in his multi-volume novel Jean Christophe shows the disintegration of French and German bourgeois society. His hero - the composer Christoph - suffers, seeing meanness, hypocrisy, careerism.
The book from this cycle, The Fair in the Square, stands out for its extremely sharp denunciation by satirical means of corrupt ministers,
During this period, satire was of particular importance. The novel by the German satirist G. Mann "The Loyal Subject" and the trilogy "Empire" have great accusatory power. On the pages of these works one can see kings and chancellors, aristocrats and officials who betrayed their people, and even Emperor Wilhelm II.
A great master who ridiculed the existing system was the French writer A. France. In his work "The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard" the vices of the Third Republic, the moral decay of the ruling circles, the corruption of politicians, the intrigues of monarchs are sharply and openly ridiculed. Novels, stories, articles of the recognized American satirist writer M. Twain are filled with bitter and angry truth. The title of M. Twain's article "The Lynching United States" or sharp definitions: "A senator is a person who makes laws in his spare time from prison", "Servants of the people - persons elected to their positions to distribute bribes" - already speak for themselves.
The creators of democratic literature believed in the victory of the principles of equality and justice, the creative power of man, his ability to change the world. One of the representatives of this literature is the American writer G. Beecher Stowe. Beecher Stowe's novel "Tom's Cabin" is a masterpiece of world literature. It truly illuminates the life of the slaves and slave owners of America in the 19th century, the contradictions between them, the revolt of the Negroes against slavery. In the works "Me and my wife", "We and our neighbors" American life is also truthfully described.
"Major Barbara", along with criticism of the vices of society, is opposed to violence by forces that serve social development and justice. Rabindranath Tagore
The French writer Victor Hugo in his works “The Terrible Year”, “Les Miserables”, “93rd Year” protests against tyranny, ignorance and injustice. Hatred of colonialism, sympathy for the struggling people, his tragic life and the struggle of the outcast working man - these are the main themes of his works.
French writer Jules Verne is the greatest exponent of the science fiction novel. The heroes of the writer's works "Five weeks in a balloon", "Journey to the center of the earth", "Children of Captain Grant", "Fifteen-year-old captain" are brave, courageous people who challenge fate and overcome difficulties.
Russian writer L.N. Tolstoy in the last years of his life criticized the economic and social orders, the immoral foundations of the state and the church. A.P. Chekhov in the plays "Three Sisters" and "The Cherry Orchard" showed a typical picture of social reality.
The novels of this period by the famous Japanese writers Roka Tokutomi "Kuroshivo", "Better not to live", Naoe Kinoshita "Pillar of Fire" were directed against feudal remnants, the influence of Europe on the originality of Japanese culture.
The Chinese poet Hua Zongxiang called on the people to fight against foreigners in his poems.
The method of critical realism was used in their works by other masters of the word. Li Baojia became famous for his novel "Our Officials", W. Woiyao for his novel "For Twenty Years", Liu Ye for his novel "Jiao Sang's Journey", Zeng Pu for his novel "Flowers in the Angry Sea". In their works, the writers defended the national culture from foreign influence, revealed the social contradictions of the country's social life.
Naturalism revolutionized the artistic representation of reality. A group of artists who portrayed the life of that period in sharply satirical artistic colors called themselves naturalists. The representative of this trend, the great French writer Emile Zola, set himself the goal of showing the status, lifestyle and psychology of all classes and social groups in France. Émile Zola's 20-volume series "Rougon Macquart" is dedicated to depicting the life and social history of one family during the period of the Second Empire. The novels "Germinal" and "The Rout" are considered the pinnacle of his work.
Of the representatives of naturalism in Italy, Luigi Capuana and Giovanni Vega can be noted. In their works, with artistic skill, they reflected the hard life of the people of Southern Italy and the fighters against its oppression. Of the American naturalists, Stephen Crane in The Scarlet Badge of Courage and Frank Norris in The Octopus raised difficult social questions.
Decadentism found a distinct expression in French literature and had an extremely strong influence on symbolism, which was dominated by P. Verlaine, A. Relebo, S. Mallarmé, nicknamed the "Damned Poets".
Democratic literature is literature that serves not the interests of the ruling classes, but the interests of the people, their future, educating people in the spirit of faith in a bright future, truthfully reflecting reality.
Decadence (lat. decadentia - decline) is the general name for crisis, decadent phenomena in European culture. A trend that reflected pessimism, a mood of hopelessness, an aversion to life.
Literature. Critical realism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Updated: January 27, 2017 By: admin
