The history of the late nineteenth and early twenty-first centuries was marked by large-scale and dynamic changes that affected all spheres of society in most countries of the world. For the leaders of world development (the countries of North America and Europe), this time was the end of the modernization process, for other states - the era of its beginning. Modernization is one of the most important stages in the development of mankind. It means the transition from a traditional society to an industrial society, based on a market economy, developed industry and a democratic political system, including parliamentarism, civil liberties, separation of powers.
The socio-economic and socio-cultural processes that took place in the 20th century led to the fact that by the end of the second millennium mankind entered a qualitatively new stage in its development. Radical changes in people's lives do not stretch, as before, for a century, but take place over decades, or even several years. The scale of these changes has acquired a global scope, there are no corners on the planet where the consequences of scientific and technological progress would not be felt, some would not be affected by mass culture. Changes affected all aspects of human life. All this allows us to assert that the individual civilization that arose in Europe at the end of the 18th century. And subsequently engulfing the whole world, gives way to a new, conditionally called post-industrial, informational civilization. The world at the beginning of the third millennium did not become the embodiment of the dream of science fiction writers of past eras about a society without poverty, hunger and war, when all peoples, having abolished borders, begin to live in fraternal unity. Other proposals, for example, about open inexhaustible sources of energy, the creation of intelligent machines, and the resettlement of people to the planets of the solar system, did not materialize. At the same time, pessimistic forecasts about the death of mankind in the fire of a new world war, monstrous overpopulation, and global catastrophes did not come true. The industrial West managed to maintain its leading position in the world throughout the 20th century. The attempts of the Soviet Union to compete with the West, carrying out its own version of modernization based on communist ideology, were not successful. At the end of the 20th century, the principle of democracy of the market economy was established in most countries of the world. The socialist model remained intact only in Cuba and North Korea. At the same time, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been a slowdown in the growth of the Western economy. The leaders in terms of growth were developing countries, primarily China, India, and Brazil. US economic growth has slowed down. In 2008, a large-scale economic crisis broke out here, which soon engulfed all countries of the world. Russia met the turn of the century with a rise in the economy - for the first time in the years of reforms, its real growth was outlined. The increase in gross domestic product in 2007 was 8.1%. The most actively progressed industries, the main export of which are oil, gas and other commodities. Therefore, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had a negative impact on the country's economic development. In the context of significant fluctuations in energy prices on world markets, Russia cannot be satisfied with the role of an exclusive supplier of raw materials. The country's leadership has set the task of increasing the competitiveness of domestic industry products, both in the domestic and foreign markets, primarily through the development of advanced, innovative technologies. The task of strengthening the country's position in the system of the international division of labor is its entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO). By the end of the second millennium, there were no large colonial possessions left on the world map, the number of independent states approached two hundred. Modernization outside of Europe and North America has been controversial in the 20th century. Some countries of Asia and Latin America have achieved significant success in mastering the achievements of Western civilization, and in some ways have surpassed their "teachers". But an important feature of modernization in these countries is the preservation of local national traditions and culture, successfully resisting the onslaught of Westernization. On the other hand, the peoples of Asia and Africa continue to live in poverty. They never managed to create a developed and efficient economy. Therefore, they occupy a marginal position in the world economy and politics, lagging behind the developed countries more and more. Nevertheless, the diversity and inconsistency of the modern world is no longer an obstacle to global cooperation. Economic processes in different regions of the planet are so interconnected that in the known world one can speak of a single world economy.
§ 1. World civilizations
The term "civilization" was introduced into scientific literature by the Scottish historian and philosopher A. Ferguson and then began to be used as a synonym for the word "culture". But, for example, French scientists use the word "civilization" (civilisation) in a similar case, while German scientists use the word "culture" (Hochkultur, i.e. "high culture").
What is civilization?
The term "civilization" was first used in ancient Rome when opposing Roman society to barbarians. However, even today there is no coherent scientific concept of civilization - the term belongs to the number of such scientific concepts that are not subject to an unambiguous definition.
According to the American scientist S. Huntington, civilization is understood as "a certain cultural community, the highest level of grouping of people on the basis of culture and the widest cut of cultural identity after that which separates a person from other biological species." A. Kroeber considered civilizations as models of culture based on the highest values, and the French historian F. Braudel represented civilization as a space within which there are ordered elements of culture.
Civilization is a geographical space filled with a certain cultural content.
Thus, nowadays the term "civilization" is increasingly used to denote the sum of certain achievements, historically and geographically, of any of the existing cultures, which have every right to be called civilizations. As a rule, the following signs of civilization are distinguished: the history of development, the existence of statehood and a code of laws, the spread of a certain system of writing and religion, carrying humanistic ideals and moral values.
Territorially, a civilization can cover several states and ethnic groups, like Western European, or several states and one ethnic group, like Arab, or one state and one ethnic group, like Japanese. Each civilization is distinguished by its unique structure peculiar only to it. So, Chinese civilization has only one structural element - Chinese, Western - many: European, American, Australian.
How did civilizations spread across the globe?
One of the first who showed the holistic nature of the development of human civilization was the Russian scientist L.I. Mechnikov. For the first time, along with the term "geographical environment", he introduces the concept of a cultural geographical environment, which refers to nature modified by man. The first civilizational centers, according to L.I. Mechnikov, were a cultural geographical environment, which is the result of global human activity. According to the scientist, the history of civilizations in the early stages of development went through three phases: river, sea, ocean.
In the river phase, the first centers of civilization arose - Ancient Egypt and Sumer, which developed in the Nile valley and the Tigris and Euphrates basins. Large rivers contributed to the emergence of states, being a kind of “axis of development”, providing, on the one hand, close ties in a compact territory, on the other hand, they served as zones of intensive economic development due to the presence of fertile soils. The development of irrigation (the construction of irrigation canals) required a huge collective effort, which led to the formation of powerful slave states.
From Ancient Egypt, civilizations began to expand to the south, towards the Ethiopian highlands, and to the east - to the Arabian Peninsula, and then to the Mediterranean parts of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. From the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, the movement also went in two directions: towards Asia Minor and towards Transcaucasia and Iran. So arose Euro-Afroasian civilizational region in two adjacent parts of the continents of the Old World. In the II millennium BC. e. two more civilizational regions were formed: Indian(in the Indus and Ganges basins) and Chinese(in the Huang He basin).
River civilizations
“The four oldest great cultures all flourished in the midst of the great river countries. The Yellow River and the Yangtze irrigate the area where primitive Chinese culture originated and grew; Indian, or Vedic, culture did not go beyond the Indus and Ganges basins; Assyrian-Babylonian primitive cultural societies grew along the Tigris and Euphrates - these two vital arteries of the Mesopotamian valley; finally, Ancient Egypt, as Herodotus already stated, was a "gift", the creation of the Nile. (Mechnikov L.I. Civilization and great historical rivers. Geographic theory of the development of modern societies.)
During the maritime phase, the boundaries of civilizations expanded and contacts between them became more active. The role of the sea, its coastal part as an element of local development acquires great importance in the case when an ethnic group scooped food from it and mastered navigation. So, for example, the Hellenes used the Aegean Sea, the Romans - the Mediterranean, the Vikings - the North, the Arabs - the Red, the Russian Pomors - the White. The Euro-Afro-Asiatic civilization (Phoenicians and Greeks) expanded its borders towards the western Mediterranean. The Phoenicians, having captured the North African coast, founded Carthage, whose colonies appeared in Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, and the Iberian Peninsula. The Phoenicians sailed around Africa and reached the British Isles. Greek colonization swept the entire northern Mediterranean, and in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. a civilizational center was formed on the Apennine Peninsula. The growth of the Roman power (Latin civilization) led in the II century. BC e. to the inclusion in the civilized space of a part of the North African coast, the territory of Southern and Central Europe. This space became the western periphery of the old Euro-Afro-Asiatic civilizational region.
In the III century. BC e. The Indian civilizational region covered the entire Hindustan peninsula, and the Chinese one expanded in the Yangtze basin: to the northeast towards the later Manchuria, to the northwest to Mongolia, to the west towards the modern Sichuan province, to the southeast to Vietnam. From the 1st century BC e. Japan and India adjoin the China region. Such an expansion of large civilizational regions led to their contact with each other and active communication. In the interior regions of Asia, remote from the seas, large civilizational regions also arose: Central Asian(“Hunnic nomadic power”, which spread over a vast territory from Transbaikalia in the north to Tibet in the south, from East Turkestan in the west to the middle reaches of the Yellow River) and Central Asian(Iran, Transcaucasia and Asia Minor). By the end of the first millennium BC. e. a vast zone was formed, represented by large old civilizational areas: Eurasian, Indian, Chinese and new ones: Afro-Carthaginian, Latin, Central Asian and Central Asian.
By the time the oceanic phase began, along with the civilizations of the Old World in the Western Hemisphere, in the spaces of South and North America, the civilizations of Mesoamerica (Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize) and the Andean region (Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, northern Chile) were born and reached their peak. ). Despite the differences between the civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas, they had many common features in the economy, in the achievements of architecture (giant places of worship and stadiums for ritual games) and in scientific knowledge (astronomical observations, calendars). The basis of these civilizations were the great cities of the state (Teotiucan, Palenque, Chichen Itza, Tenochtitlan, etc.).
The great geographical discoveries carried out by Europeans, on the one hand, brought the civilizations of America, Australia and Oceania out of isolation, and on the other hand, actually led to their death. On the vast expanses of the new colonial lands, the seeds of European civilization began to be actively grafted.
What is the difference between the civilizations of the West and the East?
At the end of the Middle Ages, it became customary to divide civilizations into Western and Eastern. The West began to personify, first of all, European civilization, and the East - Arab, Indian, Chinese, Japanese and East Asian. A special place here belongs to Russia, which lies in the contact zone between several civilizational worlds and combines the cultures of East and West.
The Western world has expanded its geographic space to include new lands in America, Australia and Oceania. The West has managed to consolidate and gain dynamism in its spiritual, scientific and technological development. Western values, based on the ideas of democracy, constitutionalism, human rights, freedom, liberalism and individualism, were opposed by the East to despotism and monism of power (as a result, the absence of democracy), severe pressure from the state and law-abiding citizens. For the countries of the East, unlike the West, an important role is still played by such factors as the conservatism of traditions (traditions in food and clothing, reverence for ancestors and hierarchy in the family, rigid caste and social division) and harmony with nature, which underlies religion and ethics.
West-East inequality
About 1 billion people now live in the countries of Western civilization. and they account for approximately 70% of world GDP and 80% of all consumed world natural resources.
In the context of globalization in the countries of the East, the habitual way of life for the West, the system of power and ways of organizing the economy are becoming more and more established. However, mass migrations of representatives of Eastern cultures to the countries of the West make them ethnically and confessionally mosaic. In most of them, such a mosaic becomes the cause of an increase in interethnic conflict.
Is there a conflict of civilizations today?
The authors of a number of civilizational theories, such as A. Toynbee and S. Huntington, argued that in the "new world" cultural differences between nations and ethnic groups belonging to different civilizations will be the sources of new conflicts. The clash between Western and non-Western civilizations should become, in their opinion, the main factor of contradictions in world politics. Fundamental disagreements between countries belonging to different civilizations are, according to S. Huntington, irreversible and less subject to change than economic and political contradictions. However, as historical experience shows, the most dramatic clashes occur within civilizations.
clash of civilizations
In the modern world, the most significant differences between civilizations lie in the field of religion, it is religious contradictions that give rise to the longest and most violent conflicts, especially in the zones of contact between representatives of different faiths. Today the situation in many regions of the world (Kosovo, Kashmir or Iraq) is a serious confirmation of doubts about the stability of civilization in the 21st century.
Today, the need for the coexistence of different cultures and the preservation of civilizational diversity is increasingly emphasized. In November 1972, at the session of the General Conference of UNESCO, the Convention “On the Protection of the World Natural and Cultural Heritage” was adopted, which today has already been signed by 172 countries located in all parts of the world, with the exception of Australia and Oceania.
UNESCO World Heritage
In 2010, the list of objects of cultural and natural heritage included 890 objects, of which 689 were cultural, 176 were natural and 25 were mixed (natural and cultural). UNESCO World Heritage sites are located in 148 countries of the world, including 25 sites in Russia. The heritage sites include world-famous monuments, ensembles, places of interest that are of outstanding artistic, historical or natural significance, worthy of becoming the subject of concern not only for the individual state on whose territory they are located, but for all mankind.
Information sources
1. Arutyunov S.A. Peoples and cultures: development and interaction. M., 1989.
2. Maksakovskiy V.P. World cultural heritage. M., 2005.
3. Maksakovskiy V.P. Historical geography. M., 1996.
4. Stein V. Chronology of world civilization. M., 2003.
5. Huntington S. Clash of Civilizations. M., 1995.
6. Encyclopedia for children. T. 13. Countries. Peoples. Civilizations / ed. M. Aksenova. M., 2001.
7. UNESCO World Heritage Sites: http://unesco.ru , http://whc.unesco.org
Questions and tasks
1. What conditions of the geographical environment contributed to the development of centers of civilization in various parts of the Earth? Give examples of the origin of centers of civilizations on the border of different environments (mountains - plains, land - sea).
2. Using knowledge of history, highlight the common features of the civilizations of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the New and Modern Times.
3. Give examples of the spread of cultural achievements from one civilization to another. What achievements and discoveries of the civilizations of the East do we use in everyday life.
4. Express your opinion on the thought of V. Küchelbecker: "Russia ... by its geographical position could appropriate all the treasures of the mind of Europe and Asia."
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How did human mentality and psychology lead to these huge changes? It continues to be a popular topic among historians and anthropologists, and a serious discussion to this day. Let's highlight some of the oldest civilizations that have ever existed in the world.
Of course, we will talk about civilizations that, as we know, really exist, in contrast to those that are shrouded in myths and conjectures (civilizations of Atlantis, Lemuria and Rama ...).
In order to correctly display the oldest of civilizations in chronological order, it becomes necessary to look at the very cradle of civilization. Having said that, here is a list of the ten oldest civilizations that have ever existed in the world:
Period: 1438 AD - 1532 AD
Starting place: current Peru
Current location:
Ecuador, Peru and Chile
The Incas were the largest empire in South America during the pre-Columbian era. This civilization flourished in the areas of what is now Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, and had its administrative, military, and political center located in Cuzco, which is in present-day Peru. The Incas had their societies fairly well developed and the empire was prosperous from the start.
The Incas were devout followers of the Sun God Inti. They had a king who was called "sapa inca" which means "child of the Sun". Pachacuti, the first Inca emperor, transformed it from a humble village into a great city laid out in the shape of a puma. He expanded the tradition of ancestor worship.
When the ruler died, his son took over the rule of the people, but all his wealth would be distributed to his other relatives, who in return supported his political influence. This significantly led to a sudden increase in the power of the Incas. The Incas continued to become great builders, they continued to build fortresses and places like Machu Picchu and the city of Cusco, which are still preserved on our planet.
Period: 1345 AD - 1521 AD
Source location:
South-central region of pre-Columbian Mexico
Current location:
Mexican
The Aztecs came to the "scene" can be said at a time when the Incas acted as powerful rivals in South America. Around the 1200s and early 1300s, people in what is now Mexico lived in their three major rival cities - Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Around 1325, these rivals formed an alliance, and thus the new state was brought under the authority of the Valley of Mexico. By the way, then people preferred the name Mexica, not the Aztecs. The emergence of the Aztecs took place during the century of the fall of another influential civilization in Mexico and Central America - the Maya.
The city of Tenochtitlan was the military force that spearheaded the conquest of new territory. But the Aztec emperor did not rule over every city, but had the subordination of the entire people. Local governments remained in place, but were forced to pay various sums in favor of the Triple Alliance.
In the early 1500s, the Aztec civilization was indeed at the height of its power. But then the Spaniards arrived with plans to expand their lands. This eventually led to a huge battle between the Incas and an alliance of Spanish conquistadors and local allies that they gathered led by the famous Hernán Cortés in 1521. Defeat in this decisive battle eventually led to the fall of the once famous Aztec empire.
Period:
Place of origin:
Latini village
Current location:
Rome
Roman civilization entered the "picture of the world" around the 6th century BC. Even the story behind ancient Rome is a legend, full of myths. But at the height of their power, the Romans controlled the largest piece of land in that era - the entire current district that surrounds the modern Mediterranean Sea was part of ancient Rome.
Early Rome was ruled by kings, but after only seven of them ruled, the Romans took over their own city and ruled themselves. They then had a council known as the "senate" that ruled over them. From this point on, we can already talk about the "Roman Republic".
Rome also saw the rise and fall of some of the greatest emperors in human civilization such as Julius Caesar, Trajan and Augustus. But over time, the empire of Rome became so vast that it was simply impossible to bring it to uniform rules. But in the end, the Roman Empire was invaded by millions of barbarians from the north and east of Europe.
Period: 550 BC - 465 BC
Place of origin:
Egypt in the west to Turkey in the north and through Mesopotamia to the Indus River in the east.
Current location:
Modern day Iran
There was a time when the ancient Persian civilization was, in fact, the most powerful empire in the world. Although having ruled for only a little over 200 years, the Persians took over land that covered over 2 million square miles. From the southern parts of Egypt to parts of Greece, and then east to parts of India, the Persian Empire was known for its military strength and wise rulers. They created such a vast empire only after 200 years (before 550 BC), the Persian Empire (or Persis as it was called then) used to be divided into factions among a number of some leaders.
But then King Cyrus II, who later became known as Cyrus the Great, came to power and united the entire Persian kingdom. He then went on to conquer ancient Babylon. In fact, his conquest was so swift that by the end of 533 B.C. he has already invaded India, far to the east. And even when Cyrus died, his bloodline continued its merciless expansion and even fought in the legendary battle with the brave Spartans.
At one time, ancient Persia ruled all of Central Asia, most of Europe and Egypt. But that all changed when the legendary Macedonian soldier, the great Alexander, brought the entire Persian Empire to its knees and effectively “ended” civilization in 530 BC.
Period: 2700 BC - 1500 BC
Source location:
Italy, Sicily, North Africa and as far west as France
Current location:
Greece
The ancient Greeks may not have been the oldest civilization, but they are undoubtedly one of the most influential civilizations that have ever existed in the world. Although the rise of ancient Greece originated from the Cycladic and Minoan civilization (2700 BC - 1500 BC), there is evidence of burials discovered in the Franchti Cave in Argolis, Greece, which dates back to 7250 BC.
The history of this civilization is scattered over such a huge period of time that historians had to divide it into different periods, the most popular of which were the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic period.
These periods also saw many of the ancient Greeks come into the limelight - many of them forever changing the direction of the entire world. Many of them still talk about it to this day. The Greeks created the ancient Olympic Games, the concept of democracy and the senate. They created the foundation for modern geometry, biology, physics and whatnot. Pythagoras, Archimedes, Socrates, Euclid, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great... the history books are full of such names whose inventions, theories, beliefs and heroism had a significant impact on subsequent civilizations.
Period: 1600 BC E. - 1046 BC
Source location:
Yellow River and the Yangtze region.
Current location:
Country China
Ancient China - also known as Han China is undoubtedly one of the most varied stories about this civilization. The Yellow River civilization is said to be the cradle of all Chinese civilization, as it was here that the earliest dynasties were founded. It was around 2700 BC that the legendary Yellow Emperor began his reign at a time that would later lead to the birth of many dynasties that would continue to rule the Chinese mainland.
In 2070 B.C. the Xia dynasty became the first power of all China, as described in the ancient historical chronicles. Since then, many dynasties emerged and held control of China at various times until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution. And thus ended more than four thousand years of the history of ancient Chinese civilization, which also fascinates historians and ordinary people to this day. But this would not have happened before they gave the world some of the most useful inventions and products, such as gunpowder, paper, printing, the compass, alcohol, cannons and many others.
Period: 2600 BC - 900 AD
Place of origin:
Around the present day Yucatan
Current location:
Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico and south through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras
The ancient Mayan civilization flourished in Central America from around 2600 BC and has been much talked about recently due to the timing of their famous calendar.
After the civilization was established, it continued to flourish and become one of the most complex civilizations with a rapidly growing population of 19 million people. By 700 B.C. The Maya had already developed their own way of writing, which they used to create their own solar calendars carved in stone. According to them, the world was created on August 11, 3114 BC, this is the date from which their calendar is counted. And the supposed end was December 21, 2012.
The ancient Maya were culturally richer than many modern civilizations. The Maya and Aztecs built pyramids, many of which are larger than those in Egypt. But their sudden decline and abrupt end has long been one of the most intriguing mysteries of ancient history: why did the Maya, a remarkably sophisticated civilization of more than 19 million people, suddenly collapse sometime in the 8th or 9th century? Although the Maya people never completely disappeared, their descendants still live throughout Central America.
Period:
3100-2686
Place of origin:
bank of the river Nile
Current location:
Egypt
Ancient Egypt is one of the oldest and culturally rich civilizations on this list. The ancient Egyptians are known for their amazing culture, the ever-standing pyramids, the sphinx, the pharaohs and the once majestic civilization that lay along the banks of the Nile River. The civilization unified around 3150 BC (according to traditional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. But this would not have been possible had it not been for the arrival of early settlers around the Nile Valley in early 3500 BC.
The history of ancient Egypt took place in a series of stable Kingdoms divided by periods of relative instability known as the Intermediate Periods: the Early Bronze Age Old Kingdom, the Middle Bronze Age Middle Kingdom, and the Late Bronze Age New Kingdom.
Ancient Egypt gave the world pyramids, mummies that preserve the ancient pharaohs to this day, the first of the solar calendars, hieroglyphs and much more.
Ancient Egypt reached its pinnacle to the New Kingdom, where pharaohs like Ramesses the Great held such power that another modern civilization, the Nubians, also came under Egyptian rule.
Period: 2600 BC -1900 BC
Place of origin:
Around the Indus river basins
Current location:
Northeastern Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwestern India
One of the oldest civilizations on this list is the Indus Valley Civilization. It lies in the very cradle of civilization that originated in the Indus Valley region. This civilization flourished in areas extending from what is today northeastern Afghanistan in Pakistan and northwestern India.
Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of the three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three most widespread - its area is 1.25 million km2! Entire populations of people were settled around the basins of the Indus River, one of the main rivers in Asia, and another river called the Ghaggar-Hakra, which once coursed through northeastern India and eastern Pakistan.
Also known as the Harappan civilization and the Mohenjo-Daro civilization, named after the excavations where the remains of the civilization were found, the peak phase of this civilization is said to have lasted from 2600 BC until about 1900 BC.
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization, making them the first urban centers in the region. The people of the Indus civilization achieved high precision in measuring length, mass and time. And based on the artifacts found in the excavations, it is clear that the culture was quite rich in arts and crafts.
Period: 3500 BC -500 BC
Place of origin:
northeast, Zagros Mountains, southeast of Arabian Plateau
Current location:
Iran, Syria and Turkey
And now - the first civilization that ever arose on planet Earth after the evolution of people. The origin of Mesopotamia dates back to the past, and there is no known evidence of any other civilized society before it. The time scale of ancient Mesopotamia is usually around 3300 BC. - 750 BC Mesopotamia is generally credited with being the first place where civilized societies really began to take shape.
Somewhere around 8000 B.C. humans found the concept of agriculture and slowly began to domesticate animals both for food purposes and to assist in agriculture. Previously, all this created art. But all this was part of human culture, not human civilization. And then the Mesopotamians rose up, refined, added and formalized all these systems, combining them to form the first civilization. They flourished in the regions of present-day Iraq - they were then known as Babylonia, Sumer and Assyria.
The values of a progressive type of development throughout the world are recognized as universal. These are the market, the rule of law democratic state, civil society, human rights. Countries belonging to other types are striving to master the mechanism of progressive development, are drawn into market relations, and elements of democracy are being introduced. Such phenomena were the basis for the assertion that a single world civilization is being formed on the basis of Western values. Consequently, only countries that develop according to the Western type are considered civilized, the rest seem to be outside of civilization. The time of the formation of a single civilization is determined in different ways. Some believe that the formation of world civilization began already in the era of geographical discoveries. Others argue that the time when Christian values were planted in different parts of the world with fire and sword cannot be considered the beginning of world civilization, and they date it to the end of the Second World War, when, as a result of the collapse of the colonial system, many countries voluntarily chose the market and democracy.
The idea of the universality of history, of the linear progressive movement of the human community in time is a characteristic feature of the European philosophy of history. On this ideological basis, the concepts of the unity of human civilization were formed. Modernity provides additional arguments for these concepts. Industrial and post-industrial stages of scientific and technological progress lead to global cooperation, js. the creation of planetary systems of information, communications, transport, trade, the erasure of archaic differences between countries. Appearance in the 20th century global problems related to the survival of mankind on planet Earth - the threat of a nuclear, environmental catastrophe, demographic problems, etc. - serve as an additional basis in favor of the statement about the unity of human civilization.
Since in Russia in Soviet times historical concepts were formed under the strong influence of the ideas of K. Marx, who categorically spoke from the standpoint of the universality of history, in subsequent years the ideas of a single civilization on planet Earth were easily accepted. However, this approach requires critical reflection, all the more important because Russia has never been and is not a "pure" Europe.
The arguments in favor of world civilization are weighty and cannot be discounted. However, to speak of a single civilization is at least premature, and perhaps even impossible. This is more of a dream of the intellectual elite of highly developed countries than a reality. One can speak of a universal human civilization only in the sense that there is a community of intelligent beings on the planet that develops in accordance with natural and social laws and has common interests. That is, a global civilization exists only in relation to global problems. The human community itself is heterogeneous, its history cannot be understood on the basis of a planetary approach. Between the Bedouin nomad, lost in the desert expanses of the Sahara, and the superscientific intellectual from the laboratory in Berkeley (USA), the distance is not temporary (they live in the same time - today), but civilizational. It cannot be jumped over (it is fraught with violence), it must be understood.
The idea of the unity of human civilization and the universality of the laws of history lies at the basis of different versions of the civilizational approach. One of them is based on the theory of cyclical dynamics of the economist N.D. Kondratiev. Based on the study of a large array of statistical data and mathematical modeling of socio-economic processes, N.D. Kondratiev came to the conclusion that large cycles of the economic situation distinctly replace each other every half century (40-50 years). Within the half-century cycle, there are shorter ones. There are four or five of them, and each of them goes through the state of equilibrium and disequilibrium. The half-century cycle of conjuncture, in turn, is an element of the "secular" civilizational cycle, the change of which every 200-300 years is a change of civilizations. Thus, it is proposed to consider a civilization a certain stage in the development of society. Yu.V. Yakovets, an adherent of this approach, writes that civilization is "a certain stage in the cyclical development of society in the integrity of its constituent elements." There are seven such cycles-civilizations: Neolithic (7th-4th millennium BC), Eastern slave-owning (3rd - first half of the 1st millennium BC), ancient (VI century BC - VI century AD), early feudal (7th-13th centuries), pre-industrial (14th-18th centuries), industrial (60-90s of the 18th century - 10-70s of the 20th century), postindustrial (80s of the 20th century - the end of the 21st - the beginning of the 22nd centuries). The history of mankind appears in the form of a ladder, on the steps of which a person climbs.
Thus, the concept of a single world civilization denies the multivariance of human development.
At the same time, pay attention: under its flag, the idea of unified development is again proposed, only instead of a formational corridor there is a civilizational one. At the end of the corridor, there used to be communism, and now there is a Western way of life. Historical experience shows that the life of mankind is diverse, multivariate, and development is not along the line of simplification, unification, but of increasing complexity, increasing diversity. With such a view, a hierarchy of values is again established: some peoples are declared superior, exemplary, some inferior, backward. All human experience is priceless. It is not known in the end what will be the salvation of mankind, which type has the highest value in terms of the survival of mankind.
It is important to understand that there is not only a European, Western view of history, but also a completely different one. The celebration of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America by X. Columbus was marked by the entry of the peoples of the continent open to Europe into general historical life. However, the broad masses of the indigenous population of Latin America perceive this time as a catastrophe, the collapse of their own world, their own history.
In addition, historical experience shows that it is impossible to transfer a society belonging to one type of development to a fundamentally different one. A personality - yes, in two or three generations it will completely assimilate in a new environment, perceive other values (otherwise emigration would be impossible). But a community of people that has internal mechanisms of self-development cannot be transferred to another type, it degrades and collapses.
Let us turn to the most obvious example - the Indians of America. Despite five centuries of domination of the European tradition, a significant part of the indigenous population of the continent has retained a mentality, psychology, religious ideas and stereotypes of behavior that are fundamentally different from European ones. The collectivist, communal character of Indian ethics is preserved. How many millions of people belonging to different types of civilizations, the United States attached to the values of the Western way of life! This state has become a highly developed society, a showcase for the Western world. Its history spans just over 200 years. The progressive type of development allowed the United States to reach the forefront in a relatively short period of time. Unlike Europe, the United States of America is not a nation state, but a federal one. A federal state of this type makes it possible to overcome the division of mankind into nations, to make the processes of internationalization prevail. In the difficult struggle against racism, it was possible to create an atmosphere of interethnic loyalty, to promote the development of social solidarity on a social, and not national, basis. But the Indians, the natives of America, are strangers in this celebration of life. Western society is sucking out the most active forces from the Indian community, but the Indian phenomenon itself is dying out.
The fatality of the meeting with Western civilizations for the Indians of America was understood. They tried to find a way out through the creation of "national settlements", reservations in a direct or veiled form. The allocation of special territories for the life of the natives did not solve their problems, led to artificial isolation, did not stop, but, perhaps, accelerated the destruction of the traditional way of life.
The sad experience of the “transition to socialism” of the small peoples of Siberia and the North in our country speaks of the same thing: it is impossible to transfer human communities that have internal mechanisms of existence to a different type of development. Evenk writer Alitet Nemtushkin says: “Of the 120 people who studied with me at the boarding school, only two are alive, some shot themselves, some were shot, some drowned, some drowned ... We, the indigenous peoples of the North, do not fit into modern civilization, are not competitive like a dugout boat and a motor boat. Please note: we are talking about people who were brought up in boarding schools, in the traditions of Russian culture, Russian worldview. But representatives of small nations do not feel like full-fledged members of the community that seeks to assimilate them. There is a process of destruction and degradation. Alcoholism, unemployment, a high percentage of suicides, the neglect of the Aboriginal economy and the low standard of living are evidence of this.
At present, when Russia has taken a course towards a market economy and parliamentary democracy, the peoples of Siberia and the North also face a difficult problem of choice. In the confusion of the transitional era, this problem must be solved without delay. But how? Y. Shestalov writes: “Some call for a brighter Future, others destroy what has been done, others rejoice at the feast of commerce. And they prevent us from hunting, herding deer. They interfere with our lives. Live in harmony with Torum, Water, Earth. Live in harmony with nature. With myself". Some leaders argue that the market and the North are incompatible. Indeed, market values are clearly contrary to the traditional way of life of the natives. How to relate the market outlook, one of the pillars of which is the pursuit of the greatest profit, with asceticism, with one of the firm foundations of these communities, which is to take from nature only what is necessary to sustain life.
Voices are heard about the need to return to the historically established way of life as the only salvation from final death and disappearance. The big sulgan (congress) of the Evenks of Russia adopted a survival program, which is based on a course towards the revival of tribal nomadic communities, the traditional way of life. However, the return to the bosom of nature looks like a pure utopia. It is hardly possible.
It is necessary to look for ways to integrate small peoples into a complex, large social system while maintaining their identity, with large-scale support from the state. The world is now accumulating experience of the coexistence of market societies and societies living within the natural cycle. These are Sweden, Canada, Australia. Moreover, the main value of this experience is that small nations live in accordance with their traditions, but are integrated into the market environment. It is necessary to follow this path: mutual understanding and coexistence, interaction and support for the weak. It is important to understand that the civilizational features that have developed historically do not disappear anywhere. They still play an important role in the life of peoples. An attempt to ignore them can lead to social disaster.
We must not forget something else: the global problems that humanity faced in the 20th century were generated by technogenic Western civilization. The Western way is not a fabulous idyll. It is sharply conflicted, contradictory, gives rise to constant problems, including planetary ones. Ecological catastrophes, global crises in politics, peace and war, etc., show that a certain limit of progress in its traditional forms has been reached. In this environment, theories of "limitation of progress" proliferate. Louder voices are heard about the need to slow down the flywheel of scientific and technological progress, and possibly stop altogether. The threat of a worldwide ecological catastrophe has become a reality. Academician N. Moiseev writes: “Not everything is allowed to a person... There is an idea of the existence of a certain ecological imperative, that is, a set of conditions that a person has no right to violate under any circumstances!”1. All this forces us to take a critical look at the prospects of Western civilization in its present form. Apparently, in the XXI century. it will undergo great changes.
Let us turn to such an authority as A. Toynbee. He wrote: “The 'unity of civilization' thesis is a false concept, very popular among modern Western historians, whose thinking is strongly influenced by the social environment ...
The thesis about the unification of the world on the basis of the Western economic system as a logical result of a single and continuous process of development of human history leads to gross distortions of facts and to a striking narrowing of the historical outlook. features.
In the family of nations
However, it is well known that elements of a progressive type of development, especially market structures, are being actively introduced in Eastern-type countries. How to explain it? Intercivilizational dialogue has always been going on! From the East, from the Phoenicians, writing came to the Greeks, the first Greek philosophers studied with the Eastern sages. On the other hand, after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek thought, which had already reached maturity, came to the East. In the East, in Palestine, Christianity was born, which then became the soul of Western civilization. The Muslim East, having assimilated the ancient heritage, developed and reworked it in its own way and gave the world a special culture that had a strong influence on Europe. That is, all peoples in one way or another use the cumulative experience of all mankind. Different civilizations have never been separated from each other by a Chinese wall, there have always been connections and influence. Many values of the human community are of a universal nature: the concept of good and evil, moral, spiritual priorities enshrined in world religious systems have much in common. In the second half of the 20th century, after bloody wars and social cataclysms, mutual enrichment of types of development takes place especially actively. Today, different continents are connected by means of mass communication, events on the farthest of them immediately receive a response in Washington, Beijing, Moscow and in European states. But this does not mean that all civilizations are in the process of merging into a homogeneous mass, where no one recognizes their relatives. The assimilation of progressive experience has taken place and is taking place while maintaining the civilizational characteristics of each community, the mentality of peoples. Moreover, the elements of the Western path, transferred to another soil, acquired a new look and a new quality.
The faster Western civilization developed, the more distinct became the gap in the levels of development between East and West. The West, gaining a colossal pace of development, exploiting the whole world, has come a long way ahead, especially noticeably in the industrial era. One example: the first university in Europe to provide a secular education appeared in the 12th century. More than seven centuries passed before the first university providing a secular education appeared in the East. The problem of accelerating the development of societies of the eastern type, which was called modernization, arose acutely.
The problem of modernization of societies belonging to the cyclical type of development has long been actively studied in the West. There is a rich literature whose common feature is Western-centrism. Historical progress follows the line of an ever wider dissemination of culture born on the soil of the Western European tradition of individualism, many authors argue. These concepts have a significant drawback: the historical process is considered unilinear, as soon as the transition to the Western type - Westernization. In fact, the historical process is multilinear, multivariate.
The countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America experienced strong pressure from the colonial Western powers. They were drawn into market relations, the place in the traditional way of life of that part of the population that is associated with Western-type enclaves changed: private property was strengthened, individualism was manifested, elements of social class differentiation and everything connected with it. Groups of people educated in the West, professing European values, committed to European culture were formed. It became possible to visually compare their own traditions with the Western standard of living standards, individual rights, political pluralism, and limiting the role of religion. From this stratum emerged the leaders of the national liberation movement, who dreamed not only of throwing off the colonial yoke, but also of ensuring prosperity for the people.
The European model became a reference point for colonial countries and countries that were not colonial, but were inevitably influenced by the West. In the 19th century In the countries of the Eastern type, reforms were launched, with which hopes were associated that the East would fit into European standards: constitutional and democratic reforms were carried out, legislative bodies were created, and the election procedure was introduced. However, the social basis for such transformations was extremely narrow. Most countries continued to exist within the framework of centuries-old traditions.
Farthest in reforms in the second half of the XIX century. advanced Japan, which was almost unaffected by colonial expansion. The way was opened for private entrepreneurial activity, socially and legally protected, industrial construction was launched. In 1889, the text of the Constitution was published in the name of the Emperor. Japan became a constitutional monarchy, a parliament appeared.
In the first half of the XX century. attempts at deep reform continued. They became more active during the revolutions of the early 20th century. On the one hand, countries sought to free themselves from colonial or semi-colonial dependence, on the other hand, they were looking for ways to radically change the social structure and accelerate development. In China, revolutionary forces attempted to proclaim a republic headed by a president (Sun Yat-sen was named the first president). However, this did not affect the foundations of the social structure. Sun Yat-sen noted: "The destruction was carried out only on the surface, and the soil that lay under the old building was not removed and discarded." As a result of the Iranian revolution, an elected Majlis appeared - a prototype of the parliament, and a "basic law" was adopted - the constitution of the state. One could give more examples of how in the Eastern countries they tried to apply elements of the progressive type. These processes were difficult, with constant rollbacks.
The beginning of the modernization of societies of a cyclical type of development coincided with the growing crisis of Western civilization and its self-destruction, which greatly complicated this process, since the introduction of the Western type of structures reproduced their inherent contradictions.
