Baroque Baroque
(Italian barocco, literally - bizarre, strange), one of the dominant styles in European architecture and art of the late 16th - mid-18th centuries. Baroque took hold in an era of intensive formation of nations and nation-states (mainly absolute monarchies) and became most widespread in countries where feudal Catholic reaction played a particularly active role. Closely associated with aristocratic circles and the church, baroque art was designed to glorify and promote their power. At the same time, it is unreasonable to limit the baroque to the framework of the counter-reformation and feudal reaction. The art of the Baroque indirectly reflected both the anti-feudal protest and the national liberation movements of peoples against monarchical tyranny, which sometimes introduced into it a stream of democratic rebellious aspirations. Baroque embodied new ideas about the unity, infinity and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability, interest in the real environment, in the natural elements surrounding man. The Baroque replaced the humanistic artistic culture of the Renaissance and the sophisticated subjectivism of Mannerist art. Rejecting the notions inherent in classical Renaissance culture about harmony and the strict regularity of being, about the unlimited possibilities of man, his will and mind, Baroque aesthetics was built on the collision of man and the world, ideal and sensual principles, reason and the power of irrational forces. A person in baroque art appears as a multifaceted personality, with a complex inner world, involved in the cycle and conflicts of the environment.
Baroque art is characterized by grandiosity, pomp and dynamics, pathetic elation, intensity of feelings, passion for spectacular spectacles, the combination of the illusory and the real, strong contrasts of scales and rhythms, materials and textures, light and shadow.
The synthesis of arts in the Baroque, which is comprehensive and affects almost all strata of society (from the state and the aristocracy to the urban lower classes and partly the peasantry), is characterized by a solemn monumental and decorative unity that strikes the imagination with its scope. The city ensemble, the street, the square, the park, the estate began to be understood as an organized artistic whole, developing in space, unfolding in front of the viewer in a variety of ways. The palaces and churches of the Baroque, thanks to the luxurious, bizarre plasticity of the facades, the restless play of chiaroscuro, complex curvilinear plans and outlines, acquired picturesqueness and dynamism and, as it were, poured into the surrounding space. The ceremonial interiors of Baroque buildings were decorated with multicolored sculpture, molding, and carving; mirrors and murals illusoryly expanded the space, and ceiling paintings created the illusion of yawning vaults.
In the fine arts of the Baroque, virtuosic decorative compositions of a religious, mythological or allegorical nature, ceremonial portraits, emphasizing the privileged social position of a person, predominate. The idealization of images is combined in them with stormy dynamics, unexpected compositional and optical effects, reality with fantasy, religious affectation with emphasized sensuality, and often with sharp naturalness and materiality of forms, bordering on illusory. Baroque works of art sometimes include real objects and materials (statues with real hair and teeth, bone chapels, etc.). In painting, the emotional, rhythmic, and coloristic unity of the whole, often the unconstrained freedom of the stroke, are of great importance; In Italy, the birthplace of the Baroque, some of its premises and techniques appeared in the 16th century. in the easel and decorative painting of Correggio, the work of Caravaggio imbued with democratic rebellion, the buildings of G. Vignola (a type of early Baroque church), and the sculpture of Giambologna. The baroque style found its most complete and vivid embodiment in the works of the architect and sculptor L. Bernini, the architect F. Borromini, and the painter Pietro da Cortona, full of religious and sensual affectation. Later, the Italian Baroque evolved to the fantastic buildings of G. Guarini, the bravura painting of S. Rosa and A. Magnasco, the dizzying lightness of the paintings by G. B. Tiepolo. In Flanders, the worldview born of the Dutch bourgeois revolution of 1566-1602 introduced powerful life-affirming realistic and sometimes folk principles into Baroque art (painting by P. P. Rubens, A. van Dyck, J. Jordaens). Spain in the 17th century some features of the Baroque appeared in the ascetic architecture of the school of J. B. de Herrera, in the realistic painting of J. de Ribera and F. Zurbaran, and in the sculpture of J. Montañez. In the XVIII century. in the buildings of the circle of J. B. de Churriguera, baroque forms reached extraordinary complexity and decorative sophistication (even more hypertrophied in the "ultra-baroque" of Latin American countries). The Baroque style received a peculiar interpretation in Austria, where it was combined with rococo trends (architects J. B. Fischer von Erlach and I. L. Hildebrandt, painter F. A. Maulberch), and the absolutist states of Germany (architects and sculptors B. Neumann, A. Schluter, M. D. Peppelman, the Azam brothers, the Dientzenhofer family of architects, who also worked in the Czech Republic), in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Western Ukraine, Lithuania. In France, where the leading style in the XVII century. became classicism, the baroque remained a side trend until the middle of the century, but with the complete triumph of absolutism, both directions merged into a single pompous so-called grand style (decoration of the halls of Versailles, painting by Ch. Lebrun). The concept of "baroque" is sometimes unduly extended to the entire artistic culture of the 17th century, including phenomena that are far from baroque in content and style (for example, the Naryshkin baroque, or "Moscow baroque", in Russian architecture of the late 17th century, cm. Naryshkin style). In many European countries in the XVII century. bright national realistic schools also developed, based both on the techniques of caravaggism and on local artistic traditions of realism. They were most clearly expressed in the uniquely original work of the great masters (D. Velasquez in Spain, F. Hals, J. Vermeer of Delft, Rembrandt in Holland, etc.), which is fundamentally different, and sometimes deliberately opposed to the artistic concepts of the Baroque.
In Russia, the development of baroque art, which reflected the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy of the nobility, falls on the first half of the 18th century. The Baroque style in Russia was free from exaltation and mysticism (characteristic of the art of Catholic countries) and had a number of national features. Russian baroque architecture, which reached majestic proportions in the city and estate ensembles of St. Petersburg, Peterhof ( cm. Petrodvorets), Tsarskoye Selo ( cm. Pushkin) and others, distinguished by solemn clarity and integrity of the composition of buildings and architectural complexes (architects M. G. Zemtsov, V. V. Rastrelli, D. V. Ukhtomsky, S. I. Chevakinsky); the fine arts turned to secular, social themes, and the portrait was developed (sculpture by B. K. Rastrelli and others).
The Baroque era is marked everywhere by the rise of monumental art and arts and crafts, closely interconnected with architecture. In the first half of the XVIII century. baroque evolves to the graceful lightness of the rococo style, coexists and intertwines with it, and from the 1770s. everywhere superseded by classicism.
P. P. Rubens. "Adoration of the Magi". 1624. Royal Museum of Fine Arts. Antwerp.
Literature: G. Wölfflin, Renaissance and Baroque, trans. from German, St. Petersburg, 1913; his, Basic concepts of art history, trans. from German, M., 1930; IRI, vol. 5, M., 1960; VII, vol. 4, M., 1963; Russian baroque art, M., 1977; Weisbach W., Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland und Spanien, (2 Aufl.), B., 1929; Windfuhr M., Die Barocke Bildlichkeit und ihre Kritiker, Stuttg., (1966); Bialostocki J., Barock-Stil, Epoche, Haltung, Dresden, 1966; Held J. S., Posner D., 17th and 18th century art; baroque painting, sculpture, architecture, N. Y., 1971; Heimbürger M., Architettura, scultura e arti minori nei barocco italiano, Firenze, 1977; Martin J. R., Baroque, N. Y.-(a.o.), 1977; Hansmann W., Baukunst des Barock, Köln, 1978.
Source: Popular Art Encyclopedia. Ed. Field V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)
baroque(from Italian barocco - bizarre, strange), an artistic style that has occupied a leading position in European art since the end. 16 to ser. 18th century Born in Italy. The term was introduced in con. 19th century Swiss art critics J. Burkhardt and G. Wölfflin. The style embraced all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but was especially pronounced in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The renaissance sense of the clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict of being, the infinite diversity, the immensity and constant variability of the world around us, the power over man of powerful natural elements. The expressiveness of baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic clashes between the sublime and the base, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. Tendency to compose complex and verbose allegories side by side with the utmost naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by redundancy of forms, passion and intensity of images. As never before, there was a strong feeling of the “theater of life”: fireworks, masquerades, passion for dressing up, reincarnations, all kinds of “tricks” brought a playful beginning, unprecedented entertainment and bright festivity into a person’s life.
The masters of the Baroque era sought to synthesize various types of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), to create an ensemble, which often included elements of wildlife, transformed by the artist’s imagination: water, vegetation, wild stones, thoughtful effects of natural and artificial lighting, which caused a flourishing garden architecture. The structure of the architectural order was preserved in the Baroque buildings, but instead of the clear orderliness, calmness and regularity characteristic of the classics, the forms became fluid, mobile, and acquired complex, curvilinear outlines. straight lines cornices"torn"; the walls were crushed gathered in bundles columns and lavish sculptures. Buildings and squares actively interacted with the surrounding space (D.L. Bernini. Ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, 1657-63; church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, 1653-58; F. Borromini. Church of San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane in Rome, 1634-67; G. Guarino. Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, 1668–87).
Baroque sculpture is characterized by a special tactility, materiality in the interpretation of forms, virtuoso, reaching the illusory, demonstration of the texture of the depicted objects, the use of various materials (bronze, gilding, multi-colored marbles), contrasts of light and shadow, violent emotions and movements, pathos of gestures and facial expressions ( D. L. Bernini, brothers K. D. and E. K. Azam).
Baroque painting is characterized by monumentality and spectacular decorativeness, the neighborhood of the ideally sublime (brothers Carraci, G. Reni, Gverchino) and mundane everyday ( Caravaggio). Baroque principles were most fully manifested in magnificent ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. Rigaud); in luxurious still lifes, which showed the abundant gifts of nature (F. Snyders); in allegorical compositions, where the figures of rulers and nobles coexisted with images of ancient gods, personifying the virtues of those portrayed (P.P. Rubens). Plafond (ceiling) painting experienced a bright flowering (frescoes of the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome by A. del Pozzo, 1685-99; ceiling of the Barberini Palace in Rome by P. da Cortona, 1633-39; paintings of the Palazzo Labia in Venice by J. B. Tiepolo, OK. 1750). Baroque plafonds created the illusion of the disappearance of the roof, a “breakthrough” into the sky with swirling clouds, where crowds of mythological and biblical characters were carried away in a swift colorful whirlpool. Contacts with baroque style are found in the works of the greatest masters of the 17th century: D. Velazquez, Rembrandt, F. Khalsa and etc.
In Russia, baroque elements appeared later than in Europe - in the second half. 17th century - in the murals of Yaroslavl churches, in arts and crafts, in the buildings of the so-called. Naryshkin baroque, whose traditions were developed in his work by IP Zarudny ("Menshikov Tower" in Moscow, 1704-07). An active penetration of style into Russian culture occurs with the beginning of the Petrine reforms in the first decades of the 18th century; in the 1760s baroque gives way classicism. At the invitation of Peter I, many foreign masters come to Russia: architects D. Trezzini, A. Schluter, G. I. Mattarnovi, N. Michetti, sculptors N. Pino, B. K. Rastrelli, painters I. G. Tannauer, L. Caravak, engravers A. Shkhonebek, P. Picard and others.
In accordance with Peter's personal tastes, visiting and domestic artists were guided mainly by a more restrained version of the baroque that had developed in Holland; Russian art remained alien to the mystical exaltation of the works of Italian masters. In Russia, the baroque side by side (and often intertwined) not with classicism, as was the case in Europe, but with the emerging rococo. Portrait became the leading genre of painting. The baroque style permeated the entire system of decorating holidays and celebrations of the early 18th century, which took shape in the reign of Peter I (illuminations, fireworks, erected from temporary materials triumphal arches richly decorated with decorative painting and sculpture). The leading baroque sculpture in Russia was the Italian B. K. Rastrelli. In his portraits and monuments, the solemn elation of the image, the complexity of the spatial composition are combined with jewelry subtlety in the execution of details (“Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child”, 1741). A vivid example of Baroque naturalism is the "Wax Person" of Peter I (1725), created by Rastrelli.
In Russian painting of the Petrine era (I.N. Nikitin, A. M. Matveev) the influence of the Baroque is felt in a special elation, increased internal energy of portrait images.
The heyday of the Baroque in Russia fell on the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-61). The most striking embodiment of style in architecture was the solemn, full of life-affirming pathos buildings created by B.F. Rastrelli(Winter Palace, 1732-33; palaces of M. I. Vorontsov, 1749-57, and S. G. Stroganov, 1752-54, in St. Petersburg). The grandiose garden and park ensembles in Peterhof (1747-52) and Tsarskoye Selo (1752-57) fully embodied the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts and landscape art. Bright - blue, white, gold - the colors of the palace facades; water cascades and fountains in the parks, with their incessant noise and the incessant movement of falling water, reflecting the glare of the sun during the day, and at night the ghostly lights of fireworks, all created a festive spectacle. In the church architecture of Rastrelli, the traditions of European baroque and ancient Russian architecture were combined (Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, 1748-54). Leading baroque architects of the mid-18th century. there were also S. I. Chevakinsky, who worked in St. Petersburg (Nikolsky Naval Cathedral, 1753-62), and D. V. Ukhtomsky, who built in Moscow (Red Gate, 1753-57).
In plafond painting, the most recognized masters were the Italians D. Valeriani and A. Perezinotti, who also successfully worked in the genre of theatrical and decorative art. In the work of Russian masters, the portrait remained the leading genre. In the works of A.P. Antropov, the baroque was embodied in the images of the portrayed, saturated with power and strength, the contrast of internal energy and external immobility, stiffness, in natural authenticity of individual, carefully written details, in bright, decorative colorfulness.
Russian engraving baroque era (A. F. Zubov) combined rationalism, efficiency with showiness in depicting naval battles, solemn processions, and ceremonial views of the new capital of Russia. Engravers ser. 18th century often turned to the urban landscape (ceremonial views of St. Petersburg, made according to the originals of M. I. Makhaev), as well as to scientific, educational topics (artistic execution of architectural plans, geographical maps, projects for decorative design of triumphal gates, fireworks and illuminations, teaching aids , atlases and book illustrations). These graphic works combined documentary thoroughness in depicting the smallest details and an abundance of decorative elements - cartouches with inscriptions, vignettes, rich and abundant ornamentation.
The Baroque style with its dynamic forms, contrasts and restless play of chiaroscuro comes to life again in the era of romanticism.
As soon as this style was not called! “Weird, exuberant, preposterous, pretentious, unnatural…
At first, these characteristics sounded like a mockery. And all this only because the new style did not correspond to the canons of ancient art, on the basis of which a work of art should be built and which later used classicism and rationalism. That is, only this way and not otherwise.
But, as you know, there is nothing permanent in the world: everything flows, changes and acquires new qualities and priorities. And now the new XVII century was marked by a new style. This style subjugated all kinds of art: from interiors and clothing to music. But the time will come - and it will be replaced by a different style ...
In which country did the baroque originate? Of course, in Italy. It was Italy that was the center of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, and from here the triumphal procession of baroque throughout Europe began. In each country, the baroque had its own special national features.
The most important features of the Baroque are its desire for pomp and grandeur. Baroque was also characterized by dynamism, contrast, which greatly distinguished it from Renaissance harmony.
If we talk about the era and the people who lived at that time, then you can see a special passion for entertainment, card games, it was at this time that masquerades, fireworks, frilly women's hairstyles, corsets, unnaturally extended skirts on frames, and powdered wigs for men became popular. , shaved face, etc. As you can see, a strong departure from natural life, which was rejected as savagery and arrogance. One has only to remember how much effort Peter I applied to "ennoble" the Russian society of that time. In the collection “Honest Mirror of Youth”, prepared at his direction, the second part of it is completely devoted to the rules of conduct for “young boys” and girls of the nobility. In fact, this is the first etiquette textbook in Russia. The young nobleman was recommended to learn first of all foreign languages, horseback riding, dancing and fencing. The virtues of the girl were recognized as humility, respect for parents, diligence and silence, chastity. The composition regulated almost all aspects of public life: from the rules of conduct at the table to public service. The book formed a new stereotype of the behavior of a secular person who avoids bad company, extravagance, drunkenness, rudeness and adheres to European secular manners.
The same features of the Baroque in painting: pomp of forms, catchy dynamism and brightness, originality of subjects. The most famous representatives of this style in painting were Rubens and Caravaggio.
A South Dutch (Flemish) painter who embodied the mobility, unbridled vitality and sensuality of European Baroque painting.
P.P. Rubens "Self-portrait" (1623)
His paintings are exceptionally diverse, especially in terms of composition: he uses a diagonal, an ellipse, a spiral. His palette is also varied; the richness of colors is a distinctive feature of his paintings. "Rubensian" women are usually somewhat ponderous, but they attract with their overweight female form.
P.P. Rubens "The Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus" (1618)
The plot of this painting by Rubens is the myth of the brothers Castor and Pollux (sons of Zeus and Leda), who kidnapped the daughters of King Leucippus, Gilair and Phoebe. In this story, Rubens was fascinated by the very dramatic moment of the abduction, which provides rich opportunities for plastic solutions. The picture miraculously conveys the dynamics of movement. Movement in the understanding of Rubens carries both an emotional impulse and a plot meaning.
Rubens is considered an innovator in the depiction of hunting scenes, which are also distinguished by their dynamics, unexpected composition and richness of colors.
P.P. Rubens "The Hunt for the Hippo" (1618)
Baroque architecture strikes primarily with its complexity and scope. An abundance of complex, usually curvilinear forms, large-scale colonnades. On the facades of buildings and in the interiors - an abundance of sculpture. Often multi-tiered domes of complex shapes. Endless repetition, duplication of the same techniques.
Cathedral of St. Petra (Vatican)
I. Grabar writes about the Roman architecture of the Baroque era: “Neurasthenic enthusiasm doubles and triples all means of expression: there are already few individual columns, and where possible they are replaced by paired ones; one pediment seems insufficiently expressive, and they are not embarrassed to tear it apart in order to repeat another, smaller scale in it. In pursuit of a picturesque play of light, the architect does not immediately reveal all the forms to the viewer, but presents them gradually, repeating them two, three and five times. The eye gets confused and lost in these intoxicating waves of forms and perceives such a complex system of rising, falling, leaving and approaching, now emphasized, now lost lines, that you do not know which of them is true? Hence the impression of some kind of movement, an uninterrupted run of lines and a flow of forms. This principle reaches its highest expression in the method of “unfastening”, in that multiple fragmentation of the entablature, which causes a whimsically curving line of the cornice at the top of the building. This technique was erected by the masters of the Baroque into a whole system, unusually complex and complete. This should also include the reception of group pilasters, when the pilasters receive more half-pilasters on the sides, as well as the reception of flat frames framing the intervals between the pilasters. By such means in architecture, instead of the Renaissance ideal of a clear, stable and complete harmony in itself, a “ghostly feeling” was created.
Distinctive details of the Baroque -Atlanteans(telamones), caryatids- to support the arches, playing the role of columns;mascarons(view of the sculptural decoration of the building in the form of a human or animal head from the front).
Perhaps it is in baroque architecture that it is presented in its entirety and diversity. It is difficult even to list all the architects of this style, let's name just a few names: L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Poland.
In Italian architecture, the most famous representative of the Baroque was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629). His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603).
Santa Susanna (Rome)
The sculptor Lorenzo Bernini was also an architect. He owns the design of the square of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome and interiors, as well as other buildings.
Square of the Cathedral of St. Petra in Rome
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth (Poland). At the beginning of the XVIII century. in France, its own style appeared, a kind of baroque - rococo. It prevailed not in the external design of buildings, but only in interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was distributed throughout Europe and in Russia. But we will talk about it later. Now let's focus on the Russian baroque.
Baroque appeared in Russia at the end of the 17th century. (it was called "Naryshkin baroque", "Golitsyn baroque"). During the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine Baroque” (more restrained) was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, it flourished in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.
This term is used by art historians to characterize the artistic style approved by Peter I and widely used for the design of buildings in the new Russian capital of St. Petersburg.
It was an architectural style based on examples of Swedish, German and Dutch civil architecture. Although it is possible to reduce the whole variety of architectural solutions of Peter's architects to baroque only with a certain degree of conventionality, because here there are features of classicism and gothic.
The architecture of the time of Peter the Great is characterized by simplicity of volumetric constructions, clarity of articulations and restraint of decoration, and a planar interpretation of facades. Unlike the Naryshkin Baroque, which was popular in Moscow at the time, the Petrine Baroque represented a decisive break with the Byzantine traditions that had dominated Russian architecture for nearly 700 years. Golitsyn Baroque was similar to Italian and Austrian designs.
Among the first builders of St. Petersburg are Jean-Baptiste Leblon, Domenico Trezzini, Andreas Schluter, J. M. Fontana, Nicolo Michetti and G. Mattarnovi. All of them arrived in Russia at the invitation of Peter I. Each of these architects brought into the appearance of the buildings under construction the traditions of their country, the architectural school that he represented. Supervising the implementation of their projects, Russian architects, such as Mikhail Zemtsov, assimilated the traditions of European baroque.
They were the prototype of a noble ball. Peter I introduced assemblies into the cultural life of Russian society in December 1718.
The idea was borrowed by Peter from the forms of leisure he saw in Europe. They were held in all seasons, in the summer - in the open air. The program of the assemblies included food, drinks, dancing, games and conversations. According to the decree, visiting the assemblies was obligatory not only for the nobles, but also for their wives, which was closely monitored by the “king of balls” Yaguzhinsky. Yesterday's boyars tried in every possible way to evade participation in the assemblies, not wanting to dress in the new fashion and considering such a pastime indecent. Participation in the amusements of women also caused dissatisfaction. To prevent “truancy”, Yaguzhinsky looked through the lists of those invited to the assemblies and calculated the “netchikov”. That's how hard European fashion took root (in this case, the Baroque style) in Russia.
Italian born in Switzerland. From 1703 he worked in Russia, becoming the first architect of St. Petersburg. Trezzini laid the foundations of the European school in Russian architecture.
Peter and Paul Cathedral - one of the most famous works of Domenico Trezzini
His other works:
Project of the complex of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (1715)
Anichkov bridge (1721). Rebuilt to increase the capacity of the crossing. The new project is a wooden 18-span bridge with a drawbridge in the middle. The construction was carried out by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.
Anichkov bridge (modern view)
The Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712-1733) was erected on the site of the wooden church of the same name. The spire of the bell tower with the figure of a flying angel was erected by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.
Trezzini House (1721-1726). The design was carried out by Trezzini himself, the construction was carried out by M. Zemtsov.
Expansion of the Winter Palace of Peter I for Catherine I (1726-1727)
OK. Pfandzelt "Portrait of Rastrelli"
Russian architect of Italian origin, academician of architecture of the Imperial Academy of Arts. The brightest representative of the so-called Elizabethan Baroque.
His works:
Rundale Palace (Latvia). It was built in the Baroque style according to the project of F. B. Rastrelli for E. I. Biron in 1736-1740).
Mitava Palace (Latvia). Built in the 18th century. designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli as the front city residence of the Dukes of Courland and Semigallia in their capital Mitava (now Jelgava).
Grand Palace (Peterhof). Located on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland.
Andrew's Church (Kyiv). Orthodox church in honor of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called; built in the Baroque style by Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1754.
Smolny Cathedral (1748-1764), Vorontsov Palace (1749-1757), Great Catherine Palace (1752-1756) - all in St. Petersburg; the Grotto pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo (1753-1757), the Hermitage pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo (1744-1754), the Tsar's Palace in Kiev (1752-1770), the Stroganov Palace and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg (1753-1762) .
Winter Palace (Hermitage)
Only the surviving buildings of this architect are listed. Unfortunately, not everything created by Rastrelli has survived to this day.
The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century. was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini.
D.L. Bernini "Self-portrait"
The most famous of his sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpina by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. This sculpture with clouds carved out of marble and the clothes of the characters fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the position of the sculptors of this era.
D.L. Bernini "The Rape of Proserpina" (1621-1622). Gallery Borghese
D.L. Bernini "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"
In Baroque literature, writers and poets showed a tendency to perceive the real world as an illusion or a dream. Allegorical images, symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, antitheses, and rhetorical figures were often used. There is a noticeable craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life-dream. One of P. Calderon's plays is called: "Life is a dream." The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court cavaliers and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastorals. In poetry - pretentiousness, the use of complex metaphors. The sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals (love-lyrical musical and poetic work) are widespread.
In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich.
Figure of East Slavic culture, spiritual writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator, Basilian monk, court astrologer. He was a mentor to the children of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor.
He was also one of the first Russian poets, the author of syllabic verses in Church Slavonic and Polish. In addition to the poetic transcription of the Psalter under the title "Rhyming Psalter", Polotsky wrote many poems that made up the collection "Rhymologion", in which he sang various events from the life of the royal family and courtiers, as well as many moral and didactic poems that were included in "Multicolored Vertograd". This collection is the pinnacle of the work of Simeon Polotsky, as well as one of the most striking manifestations of Russian literary baroque.
S. Polotsky also wrote two comedies (school dramas) for the emerging theater, the Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son enjoyed particular success.
Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of Classicism. Pretentious forms, complexity, pomp and dynamics were also characteristic of music. But many works of the Baroque period have become classics and are performed to this day: fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach, works by George Frideric Handel, The Four Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi, Vespers by Claudio Monteverdi.
E.G. Osman (Hausmann) "Portrait of J. S. Bach"
Baroque music is characterized by musical ornament, which became very sophisticated in the heyday of the style, and ways of playing instruments developed. The boundaries of genres have expanded, the complexity of performing musical works has grown. In the Baroque era, there opera. Many baroque musical terms are still in use today.
F.M. de La Cave "Portrait of A. Vivaldi"
The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. It was the age of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned at the court. The suit was subject to etiquette. It was France that was the trendsetter in Europe, so French fashion was quickly adopted in other countries: a common fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics were preserved only in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were hardly worn in Russia.
The costume was distinguished by stiffness, splendor, and an abundance of jewelry. The ideal of a man was Louis XIV, the "sun king", a skilled rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.
N. de Largilliere "Portrait of Louis XIV with his family"
Since Louis was crowned at the age of 5, short jackets (bracers) decorated with lace, trousers (rengraves), similar to a skirt, also richly decorated with lace, came into fashion. Justocor - a type of caftan, knee-length, worn buttoned up, over it - a belt. A sleeveless camisole was worn under the caftan. The caftan and camisole will turn into a jacket and vest in 200 years. The collar of the justocor was at first a turn-down, with semicircular ends stretched down, and later it was replaced by a jabot. In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes. Before Louis XIII, boots (over the knee boots) were popular. They even wore boots at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only in military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came out on top. Until 1670 they were decorated with buckles and then with bows. The intricately decorated buckles were called agraph.
Men wore puffy wigs that stuck up high and flowed over their shoulders. Wigs came into use under Louis XIII, who was bald. Later they became much more magnificent. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with a high crown. At the end of the century, they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the 18th century.
Baroque in clothes
The women's dress was lined with whalebone. It gradually expanded to the bottom, a train was worn at the back. A full women's costume consisted of two skirts: the lower one (fripon, light) and the upper one (modest, darker). The underskirt was visible, the top diverges to the sides from the bottom of the bodice. On the sides of the skirt was decorated with draperies. Draperies were also on the edge of the neckline. The waist is narrow, a corset was worn under the dress.
In the 1660s, the Mancini and Sevigne hairstyles were fashionable, and later the fontange hairstyle came into fashion. This is a high hairstyle of many curls.
Umbrellas came into fashion, for women - muffs, fans. Cosmetics were used without measure: all kinds of flies were molded on the face (the black fly created a contrast with powdered faces and wigs). Men and women carried walking sticks.
Popular materials of that time were wool, velvet, satin, brocade, taffeta, moire, camlot, cotton.
Showy luxury is typical here. Wall painting became widespread, although it was popular before.
baroque interior
The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: a ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic, for example, the marble floor, decorated with checkerboard tiles. Abundant gilded jewelry is also a characteristic feature of the Baroque.
The furniture was a piece of art and was intended to decorate the interior. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered with expensive fabric. Huge beds with canopies and flowing down bedspreads, giant wardrobes were widespread.
Mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture material.
Baroque style is suitable only for large rooms, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large amount of space. By the way, there is already a trend towards its return - some equip their apartments in this style.
Baroque is one of the trends in art and literature of the 17th century, preserved and developed in some countries (Germany, Austria, Italy, Russia) and during the Enlightenment. The word "Baroque" existed in several languages- Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Spanish - long before this period and had several different meanings (one of the figures of the syllogism in scholastic reasoning, a type of financial transaction, an irregularly shaped pearl), each of which included the figurative meaning of "strange, wrong, extravagant" and had a disparaging connotation. Baroque began to be applied to the phenomena of art (music, architecture) already in the second half of the 18th century, and in the 19th century the first works of art critics appeared (J. Burckhardt, 1865; G. Wölfflin, 1888), in which the baroque was regarded as a phenomenon that arose at sunset Renaissance, but no longer interpreted absolutely negatively. In the 20th century, the aesthetic rehabilitation of the Baroque began as a direction in architecture, painting, and music. For quite a long time, the term "Baroque" was not applied to literary phenomena or was used only sporadically, in a few studies (D. Carducci, 1860; E. Porembovich, 1893). The final legalization of the concept of Baroque, not only in the field of art history, but also in the history of literature, was carried out in the 1930s, and in the 1950s-60s, a scientific fashion for the Baroque appeared in literary criticism. Its appearance is obviously associated with a certain echo of the artistic worldview of the "catastrophic" 20th century with the worldview of people of the turbulent, military 17th century - the beginning of the New Age, in which our contemporary recognizes himself more quickly and easily than in the art and literature of earlier stages. The feeling of closeness, similarity of the spiritual atmosphere of the period of development of Baroque literature to the intellectual and psychological climate of the 20th century gives rise to works in the so-called neo-baroque style throughout its entire course, explains the popularity of the word itself, sometimes appearing even in the titles of works (“Baroque Concerto”, 1975, A. Carpentier), reveals the pattern of research interest in the Baroque.
However, modern scholars are forced to state that “a huge number of works on the Baroque that have appeared by the present period have only cast a fog into his theory.” Many specialists understand the term "Baroque" very broadly. One concept, dating back to the work of E. d'Ors, considers the baroque as a constant of any style, as its final crisis stage, highlights the Hellenistic, medieval, classic, romantic baroque - more than 20 types in total. Another concept, put forward by G. Gatzfeld, considers the baroque as a generalizing category, which includes subspecies: mannerism, classicism and baroque (rococo). Studies in which baroque acts as a historical concept localized within certain chronological frameworks are also quite contradictory. The dates of the existence of the Baroque range from extremely wide (1527-1800) to rather narrow (1600-50). Baroque is understood either as an artistic style, the direction of a certain historical and cultural period (B.R. Vipper. Art of the 17th century and the problem of the Baroque style Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966), or as a “style of the era”, i.e. designation of a cultural period as a whole, as a type of culture. Sometimes these definitions enter into each other, sometimes they are considered as mutually exclusive: according to A.V. Mikhailov, “baroque is not a style at all, but something else. Baroque is not a direction either... It is possible to speak of baroque as a "style of the era".
Researchers define the connection between Baroque art and literature and religious movements of the 17th century in different ways: in some works, the Baroque is a product of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, even specifically the “Jesuit style”, “the art of the Council of Trent”, in others, on the contrary, it is an artistic phenomenon that opposes the Counter-Reformation ideology. (this is how the baroque was interpreted in those Soviet studies that aimed at the ideological rehabilitation of the direction), thirdly, the baroque develops both among Catholics and among reformers, without having a certain confessional attachment, but rather growing on the basis of that religious - both political and social - the conflict that marked the end of the Renaissance. The art and literature of the Baroque are developing more actively in those periods of the New Age, when the crisis state of society intensifies (in general, this is mainly the last third of the 16th - the first half of the 17th century, more specifically 1580-1660) and in those countries where political and social stability less durable or broken (Spain, Germany).
Baroque is the product of a deep historical, ideological, sociocultural, moral and psychological crisis during the transition from the Renaissance to the New Age. It grows on the basis of an acute inner experience of external cataclysms, a rethinking of the old picture of the world, a reassessment of human capabilities, familiar ideas and values. In the artistic vision of the Baroque, not only is the Earth not the center of the Universe (a consequence of the Copernican picture of the world deeply assimilated and developed in the 17th century), but man is not the crown of creation (new religious movements such as Protestantism and Jansenism contribute to the criticism of this idea). The world and human life in the world appear as a series of irreconcilable oppositions, antinomies, they are in constant struggle with each other and are constantly changing, turning into an illusion. The reality surrounding a person turns out to be a dream, and the most dramatic thing is that he cannot catch the boundaries between these states, understand what position he is in at one time or another (play by P. Calderon “Life is a dream”, 1636).
The unknowability of the mobile, disharmonic, chaotic reality in which a person lives - a "thinking reed" left to worldly storms, an "atmosphere of doubt" in which he is immersed, arouse an avid interest in the mysterious, magical, mystical, which obviously have no final solution. A baroque man is tormented by a sense of fragility, inconstancy, and the variability of life, he turns either to the tradition of ancient stoicism or epicureanism, and these principles are not only antinomically opposed, but also paradoxically merged in a pessimistic sense of life as a path of troubles. Baroque literature finds figurative and stylistic correspondences to the new worldview, “avoiding speaking too clearly”, colliding and contaminating the tragic and the comic, the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the low, “to be” and “to seem”, using metaphors and paradoxes, having a passion for the image metamorphoses, transformations and disguises. Baroque often depicts the world as a theater: directly introducing theatrical scenes into works (including stage scenes - the technique of "theater in the theater"); resorting to decorative and lush visual means (stringing sophisticated metaphors, creating emblem images, hyperbolization and exaggeration of linguistic contrasts). The word itself in the Baroque primarily carries the function of "representation", and metaphors and allegories are "a way of forming a special structure of consciousness."
The creative task of the baroque writer is to excite and surprise the reader (“The poet’s goal is the miraculous and amazing. Whoever cannot surprise ... let him go to the hoarder.” D. Marino. Sonnet, 1611). At the same time, the baroque seeks to express the complexity of the world in its entirety: the cumbersome composition of many works, the abundance of characters, storylines, conflicts, events, the variety of “scenery” in which they occur, the extensive scholarly comments that often accompany the texts of novels (“The Mad Shepherd” , 1627-28, S. Sorel, "Assenat", 1670, F. von Cesena), dramas ("Papinian", 1659, A. Gryphius), are designed to turn these works into a kind of universal encyclopedia. The baroque world of the “encyclopedia”, both as the Book of Genesis and as the book itself, consists of many separate fragments, elements, “headings” that combine into contradictory and unexpected combinations, creating a “deliberately dizzying” narrative labyrinth. The "rational extravagance" of the Baroque is due to the fact that this is a rhetorical art, which does not set itself the task of a direct, direct reflection of reality. Baroque always takes into account, although it varies unexpectedly, even paradoxically, the literary tradition. This literature uses the "ready-made word" - both in its "high", ethical-philosophical, love-psychological, "tragic" line (P. Calderon, O. d'Urfe), and in the "grassroots", moralistic, burlesque-satirical , "comic" line (F. Quevedo, Sorel, H. Ya. Grimmelskha uzen). Baroque is represented in European literature not only by these two main stylistic lines, but also by many currents: cultism (gongorism) and conceptism in Spain, Marinism in Italy, libertinage and precision in France, the metaphysical school in England, "secular" and "religious" baroque . This direction has certain national characteristics in each country: the Spanish baroque is the most philosophically tense, confused, the French is the most analytical and intellectual, the German is the most emotionally affected. Baroque is an art that is not inclined to create a coherent system of artistic laws, "rules". There are few literary and aesthetic works that can rightfully be called program baroque, although T. de Vio, Sorel in France, J. Donne in England, D. Marino in Italy, Grimmels Hausen in Germany. Baroque aesthetics are most fully represented in Italy (“Aristotle's Spyglass”, 1655, E.Tesauro) and Spain (“Wit, or the Art of a Sophisticated Mind”, 1642, B. Graciana): both theorists focus on the concept of "sharp mind" as the basis of the ingenuity of the artist of the word, and affirm the role of intuition in artistic creativity. The system of genres in the Baroque does not have completeness and harmony, as in classicism, however, the genre preferences of writers are quite clear: these are pastoral poetry, dramatic pastorals and a pastoral novel, a gallant-heroic novel with a historical theme, an allegorical novel, philosophical and didactic lyrics, satirical, burlesque poetry, comic novel, tragicomedy, philosophical drama.
The Baroque style in architecture found its place in all European countries, but two came to the fore. Born in Italy, it reaches its apogee in France, smoothly flowing into Rococo. The article traces the development of several Italian baroque themes, culminating in the Vatican. Then he considers French trends with the pinnacle of development in the ambitious palace of Louis XIV, at Versailles.
Italian word barocco means "quirky", "weird", "excessive". The main characteristic of this direction is dynamism (a sense of movement). Smooth wavy lines, rich decoration and complexity are all typical features of Baroque art. Finally, for the first time since antiquity, architects began to resort to optical illusion in construction. They realized that by deceiving the eye, you can make a large building even more grandiose, adding power and wealth to the owner. This technique goes back to, with the help of which the great temples looked simply stunning.
The full baroque aesthetic arose during the
The restrained Baroque aesthetic of Northern Europe culminated during the Late Baroque (c. 1675-1725). The era was completed by the French Rococo style (circa 1725-1800), in which the omnipotence and drama of style were calmed down by gentle playfulness. The late baroque and rococo period was led by France.
England should also be noted in the discussion of baroque architecture for two reasons.
Baroque architecture is characterized primarily by rich sculptural surfaces. While Renaissance architects favored glider classicism (flat surfaces decorated with classical elements), baroque architects freely shaped surfaces, achieving a three-dimensional sculptural classicism.
An example of high baroque architecture. Church in Rome San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or San Carlino. Arch. Francesco Borromini
The surface of a Renaissance building is usually neatly divided into sections (according to classical clarity and order), the Baroque surface is treated as a single continuous whole.
The Renaissance façade often consists of many similar parts, so that the eye does not stop at any particular part of the building. The Baroque façade often includes a rich, exciting concentration of elements around a central entrance. For example, curved walls, columns, blind arches, statues, relief sculpture.
The most magnificent examples of Baroque architecture are the churches in Italy. The pioneer of the direction was Carlo Maderno, the author of the facade of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. Built by various architects throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the building generally is a mixture of Renaissance and Baroque components.
Before him, various architects worked on the basilica (especially Michelangelo). Maderno pushed the main entrance forward and corrected the proportions of the dome, pulling it up. The facade of the Basilica itself, designed by him, is his own little miracle.
St. Peter's Basilica (lat. Basilica Sancti Petri, Italian. Basilica di San Pietro) is a Catholic cathedral, the central and largest building of the Vatican It contains a number of typical baroque elements. Among them
All these elements came from the late Renaissance and Mannerism. Maderno divides the colonnade and the horizon of the façade into intervals with statues and other decorations and moves on. Mixes styles, alternating square columns with round ones. Similarly, the gables above the windows and doors also alternate with rounded and triangular designs. All doors and windows are different.
However, all this exuberant variety is regulated and controlled to create symmetry. The overall effect is picturesque and captivating.
The two main names in High Baroque architecture are Bernini and Borromini. Both worked primarily in Rome.
There are two masterpieces in St. Peter's Basilica Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini. One of them is a four-storey canopy (covered dome) that stands above the high altar in the center of the basilica. The other is a square framed by a colonnade in the form of symmetrical semicircles. Creating a panoramic effect, it draws the eye to the basilica in the center. On top of the colonnade, 162 statues of Catholic saints provide variety.
Baroque Colonnade by Bernini in front of St. Peter's Basilica This Bernini project has no analogues: all rows of columns are combined and only one row is visible if you stand at a certain point in the square. This place is marked with white marble. Attempts to replicate the effect were unsuccessful.
P stairwell of the Vatican Palace, designed by him in such a way that it seems longer and higher than it actually is. He created an optical illusion, deceived the eye in order to correct the construction mistake of his predecessors.
Baroque in architecture. Canopy and main staircase (Scala Regina) of St. Peter's Cathedral in the Vatican. Arch. Bernini Bernini's most famous building is the small church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale ("St. Andrew on the Quirinal Hill"). This hill is one of the seven hills of Rome.
Francesco Borromini was a master of curvilinear wall architecture. Although he designed many large buildings, his most famous and influential work is the small church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane ("St. Carlo in the Four Fountains"). This building is also located on the Quirinal Hill (first photo of the article). Here we see his baroque architectural innovation - the use of curved surfaces. The straight lines were replaced with flowing curvy ones, giving the building its characteristic Baroque feel. The eye enjoys the view of the rounded windows and the graceful curvature of the façade.
Italy laid the foundation for baroque themes that were repeated over and over again in baroque architecture in other countries:
The Late Baroque marks the rise of France as the center of Western culture. Baroque art in France (and Northern Europe in general) is restrained, so that it can be described as a compromise between classic and baroque. A distinctive element of French Baroque architecture is the double-leaf mansard roof (a typical French invention).
The most famous baroque structures in France are the magnificent castles. There is probably no more residence on Earth than Versailles. It was built mainly during the time of Louis XIV, whose patronage of the arts propelled France to the forefront of Western culture.
Late baroque example. Facade of the Palace of Versailles The façade of the palace perfectly illustrates the northern European classical baroque compromise. The walls of the palace are made in a combination of glider classicism with baroque elements such as sculpted busts, various pilasters and other decorations. In addition, the mansard roof has richly decorated windows. Versailles has become a European model of palace architecture, inspiring the creation of similar ensembles throughout the continent, right up to St. Petersburg.
The most famous room in Versailles is the Hall of Mirrors. The mirrors are the same size as the windows opposite.
Continuing the traditions of the Baroque, the Rococo style in architecture loses its scale, grandeur and drama. Lighter, more playful, it does not carry functionality and a combination of forms.
The Helbling House in Innsbruck, Austria. Photo by James Davis/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images Rococo architects loved the sinuous flowing lines and ornate, asymmetrical baroque ornamentation. Although most Rococo was concentrated in France (the style's birthplace), architecture culminated in Austria and southern Germany, especially in the form of churches.
To better understand the topic.
The Baroque style in architecture is one of the most exciting. During this period, from the end of the 16th century to the dawn of the 18th century, Europe developed these directions rapidly. This is the period when architects began to design not single buildings, but entire complexes, and even took responsibility for planning the entire city.
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Authors: V. D. Dazhina, K. A. Chekalov, D. O. Chekhovich (General Information), V. D. Dazhina (Architecture and Fine Arts), K. A. Chekalov (Literature), Yu. S. Bocharov (Music)Authors: V. D. Dazhina, K. A. Chekalov, D. O. Chekhovich (General Information), V. D. Dazhina (Architecture and Fine Arts), K. A. Chekalov (Literature); >>
BAROQUE (Italian barocco, presumably from Portuguese barroco - an irregularly shaped pearl or from Latin baroco - a mnemonic designation of one of the modes of syllogism in traditional logic), a style in the art of con. 16th–18th centuries Covered all areas of plastic. arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), literature, music and the performing arts. Style B. was an expression of typological. community of national cultures in the making absolutism, which was accompanied by heavy military. conflicts (including Thirty Years' War 1618–48), the strengthening of Catholicism and church ideology (see. counter-reformation). Thanks to this commonality, it is also legitimate to talk about cultural and historical. era B., inheriting the era Renaissance. Chronological B.'s borders do not match in otd. regions (in Latin America, a number of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, in Russia the style was formed later than in Western Europe) and in different. types of art (for example, in the 18th century B. exhausted itself in Western European literature, but continued to exist in architecture, depiction art, and music). B.'s homeland is considered to be Italy. B. is successively connected with the mannerism of the 16th century. and coexists with classicism .
B.'s style reflected the new attitude that replaced Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism, in which the features of rationalism and mysticism were contradictory combined. spiritualism, the desire for scientific. systematization of knowledge and passion for magic. and esoteric teachings, interest in the objective world in all its breadth and religions. exaltation. Scientific discoveries that pushed the boundaries of the universe brought awareness of the infinite complexity of the world, but at the same time turned a person from the center of the universe into a small part of it. The destruction of the balance between man and the world manifested itself in the antinomy of B., gravitating towards sharp contrasts of the sublime and the low, the carnal and the spiritual, the refined and the brutal, the tragic and the comic, etc. The calm balance and harmony of the Renaissance art were replaced by increased affectation, exaltation, stormy dynamics. At the same time, striving for an active influence on the viewer-listener, B.'s style relied on a carefully thought-out rational system of techniques, which means. degree based on rhetoric [primarily on the doctrine of "invention" (Latin inventio) and stylistic. figures, “decoration” (lat. elocutio)]. Rhetoric principles were transferred to decomp. types of lawsuits, determining the construction of lit. works, theatrical action, programs of decorative and monumental pictorial cycles, music. compositions.
Wishing to combine within the framework of one work contrasting images, and often elements of different. genres (tragicomedy, opera-ballet, etc.) and stylistic manners, masters of B. attached particular importance to virtuoso artistry: the victory of technology over the material of art symbolized the triumph of creative genius, which has “wit” - the ability to combine distant and dissimilar things in a single image concepts. Ch. the instrument of "wit" was a metaphor - the most important of the Baroque tropes, "the mother of poetry" (E. Tesauro).
The desire for a comprehensive impact on the audience led to the characteristic of B. rapprochement and interpenetration decomp. types of art (architectural illusions in painting and scenography, sculptural and picturesque architecture, theatricalization of sculpture, poetic and picturesque music, the combination of image and text in figure verse and in the emblem genre). Pathetic. “high” B. with its inherent grandiosity and splendor (architectural ensembles, altars and altarpieces, triumphs and apotheoses in painting, operas based on mythological subjects, tragedy, heroic poem; theatrical spectacles - coronations, weddings, burials, etc.). etc.) coexisted with chamber (still life in painting, pastoral and elegy in literature) and grassroots (comedy interludes in opera and school drama) forms of B. Lifelikeness in the art of B. often bordered on spectacular theatricality (the motif of the world as a theater is typical for B.), and with complex symbolism: an object depicted in realistic. manner, fraught with a hidden meaning.
The term "B." arose in the 18th century. among art historians close to classicism (I. Winkelman, F. Militia); initially expressed a negative assessment of the Italian. architecture of the 17th century, and later the entire art of this period. The epithet "baroque" in the classic. normative aesthetics served as a designation of everything that was outside the rules and contrary to order and classical. clarity. In musicology, the term "B." (for the first time - in the "Musical Dictionary" by J. J. Rousseau, 1768) for a long time also had a negative meaning, fixing attention on certain "oddities" that fell out of the norms of classicism. One of the first historical B.'s interpretation was given by J. Burkhardt (in the book Il Cicerone, 1855), who determined the style of B. in connection with the Italian. architecture con. 16th century B.'s theory as a style in depict. art, different from the Renaissance and classicism, was formulated by G. Wölfflin (“Renaissance and Baroque”, 1888; “Basic Concepts of the History of Art”, 1915), who singled out formal categories to distinguish between the inherently opposite styles of the Renaissance and B. The idea of \u200b\u200bB as a historical style was transferred to literature and music only in the beginning. 20th century Modern B.'s concept tends to bring it beyond art and literature, to transfer it to areas such as sociology, politics, history, religion and philosophy. Sometimes the concept of "B." interpret not in a concrete historical. sense, but as a designation of the totality of stylistic. features, periodically repeated in dec. stages of the evolution of culture (for example, elements of baroque style are seen in romanticism, expressionism, surrealism, Latin American magical realism, etc.).
Separate features of B.'s style (a craving for the grandiose, dynamic composition, and dramatic tension) appeared already in the 16th century. in the work of Correggio, Michelangelo, G. da Vignola, F. Barocci, Giambologni. B.'s heyday refers to the 1620–30s, the final stage falls on the middle. 18th century, and in some countries at the end of this century.
B.'s suit embodied the idea of a triumphant church, which contributed to the solution of large-scale archit. tasks, the creation of majestic ensembles (the square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, the restructuring of the most important Roman basilicas, the style churrigueresque in Spain, etc.), the flourishing of pictorial interior design and representative altar paintings. Organic for B. was the idea of the triumph of power, which was reflected in the suit of the court B., characteristic not only for the centers of absolutism (France, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Russia, some states of Germany and Italy), but also for the republics, asserting their power (Venice, Genoa).
The striving inherent in B. for the pomp of forms, spectacular showmanship most clearly manifested itself in architecture. It is in the era of B. that a new European is born. urban planning, a type of modern is being developed. houses, streets, squares, mountains. estates. In the countries of Lat. America's urban planner. the principles of B. determined the appearance of the plural. cities. Palace and park ensembles are being developed (Versailles, Petrodvorets, Aranjuez , Zwinger etc.), arts and crafts and small sculptural forms, garden and park sculpture are flourishing. B.'s architecture is characterized by a gravitation towards synthesis of the arts, the emphasized interaction of the volume with the spatial environment (the natural environment of the park, the openness of the architectural ensemble of the square), the curvilinearity of plans and outlines, the sculptural elasticity and plasticity of forms, the contrasting play of light and shadow, the different scales of volumes, illusionism (J. L. Bernini, F. Borromini , D. Fontana , Pietro da Cortona, C. Maderna, C. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longhena, J. B. de Churrigera, G. Hesius, L. Vanvitelli and others). Painting and sculpture actively interact with architecture, transforming the space of the interior; widely used stucco, dec. materials in their spectacular and colorful combinations (bronze, multi-colored marble, granite, alabaster, gilding, etc.).
In picture the art of B. is dominated by virtuosic in execution decorative compositions of religious, mythological. or allegorical. content (plafonds by Pietro da Cortona, A. Pozzo, br. Carracci, P. P. Rubens, G. B. Tiepolo), spectacular theatrical ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, J. L. Bernini, G. Rigaud), fantastic . (S. Rosa, A. Manyasco) and heroic. (Domenichino) landscapes, as well as more chamber forms of portraiture (Rubens), landscape and architectural leads (F. Guardi, G. A. Canaletto), picturesque parables (D. Fetti). Court life and its theatricalization contributed to the active development of representative forms of painting (decorative cycles of murals in palace apartments, battle painting, mythological allegory, etc.). The perception of reality as an infinite and changeable cosmos makes the pictorial space boundless, which opens upwards in spectacular plafond compositions, goes deep into inventive architecture. landscapes and theatrical scenery (scenography by B. Buontalenti, G. B. Aleotti, G. Torelli, J. L. Bernini, I. Jones, family Galli Bibbiena and etc.). Perspective effects, spatial illusions, linear and compositional. rhythms, contrast of scales break the integrity, give rise to a feeling of improvisation, the free birth of forms, their variability. The primary role was played by optical. effects, passion for aerial perspective, the transfer of the atmosphere, transparency and humidity of the air (G. B. Tiepolo, F. Guardi and others).
In the painting of the "high" B., guided by the so-called. great style, preference was given to historical. and mythological. genres that were then considered the highest in the genre hierarchy. In this era, the “lower” (in the terminology of that time) genres also arise and fruitfully develop: still life, genre painting proper, landscape. Democratic B.'s direction, alien to theatricalization and affectation of feelings, proved to be realistic. domestic scenes ( "painters of reality" in France, representatives caravaggism, the genre of bodegones in Spain, the everyday genre and still life in Holland and Flanders), non-church religions. painting (J. M. Crespi, Rembrandt).
Style B. existed in many national. variants with a distinct identity. For flam. B. is most characteristic of the work of Rubens with his ability to convey a sense of the fullness of life, its ext. dynamics and change. Use B. is distinguished by greater restraint and ascetic style, combined with an orientation towards local realists. traditions (D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, J. de Ribera, architect J. B. de Herrera). In Germany (architects and sculptors B. von Neumann, A. Schlüter, brother Azam and others) and Austria (architects I. B. Fischer von Erlach and I. L. von Hildebrandt) B. style was often combined with features of Rococo. In the suit-ve of France, B. retains the Renaissance rationalist. basis, later actively interacts with the classic. elements (the so-called baroque classicism). Separate stylistics. B.'s features manifested themselves in the emphasized decorativeness of the buildings of the state rooms of Versailles, decorative panels by S. Vouet and C. Lebrun. England, with the cult of the classical, characteristic of its architecture. forms and Palladianism(I. Jones, K. Wren) mastered a more restrained version of the Baroque style (primarily in decorative painting and interior design). In restrained, ascetic forms, the style was also manifested in some Protestant countries (Holland, Sweden, etc.). In Russia, the development of the B. style falls on the 18th century. (heyday - 1740-50s), which was associated with the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy. An earlier period, defined as Naryshkin baroque, is closely related to the traditions of the architecture of Ancient Russia and is not directly related to the style of B. The originality of Rus. B. was determined not only by the stability of the nat. traditions and forms, but also by the interaction of baroque features with classicism and rococo (sculptor K. B. Rastrelli, architects B. F. Rastrelli, S. I. Chevakinsky, D. V. Ukhtomsky). National variants of the B. style arose in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Zap. Ukraine, Lithuania. B.'s distribution centers were not only European. countries, but also a number of countries in Lat. America (especially Mexico and Brazil, where B. acquired hypertrophied features in the forms ultrabaroque), as well as the Philippines and others. colonies.
The early manifestations of B. in literature, which remain close to mannerism, belong to the last quarter. 16th century: R. Garnier's tragedy Hippolyte (1573), Tragic Poems by T. A. d'Aubigné (created in 1577–79, published in 1616), T. Tasso's poem Jerusalem Liberated (1581) ). The style fades into the 2nd floor. 17th century (the chronological border of B. for Italy is the foundation of the academy "Arcadia" in 1690), but in glory. literature continues to be retained in the Enlightenment.
The formative experimental principle, the craving for novelty, for the unusual and unfamiliar in literature B. are associated with the formation of the new European picture of the world and are largely generated by the same renewal of knowledge. paradigms, as scientific. and geographic discovery of the turn of the 16th–17th centuries. The influence of new European empiricism is reflected in the writers' active use of life-like and even naturalistic concepts. forms (not only in prose, but also in poetry), which, according to the law of contrast, are combined with the hyperbolism of style and the cosmism of the figurative structure (G. Marino's poem Adonis, published in 1623).
The most important component of B. is the desire for diversity (lat. "varietas"), which was considered as one of the criteria for artistic. perfection of poetry (including B. Gracian y Morales, E. Tesauro, Tristan L'Hermite and especially J.P. Camus, creator of the monumental 11-volume work "Motley Mix", 1609-19). Comprehensiveness, the desire to summarize knowledge about the world (taking into account the latest discoveries and inventions) are characteristic features of B. In other cases, encyclopedism turns into chaos, collecting curiosities, the sequence of reviewing the universe takes on an extremely whimsical, individually associative character; the world appears as a labyrinth of words, a collection of mysterious signs (treatise by the Jesuit E. Binet "Experience on Miracles", 1621). As universal codes of various kinds of truths and ideas about the world, books of emblems are widely popular: the influence of emblematics is felt in the poetry of J. Marino, F. von Cesen, J. Morshtyn, Simeon of Polotsk, in the novel Criticon by B. Gracian y Morales (1651–57).
B.'s literature is characterized by the desire to study being in its contrasts (darkness and light, flesh and spirit, time and eternity, life and death), in its dynamics and decomp. levels (pendulum movement between the levels of the social hierarchy in the novel by H. von Grimmelshausen"Simplicissimus", 1668-1669). B.'s poetics is marked by increased attention to the symbols of the night (A. Griphius, J. Marino), the theme of the frailty and impermanence of the world (B. Pascal, J. Duperron, L. de Gongora i Argote), life-dreams (F. de Quevedo y Villegas, P. Calderon de la Barca). In baroque texts, the Ecclesiaste formula of “the vanity of the world” (lat. vanitas mundi) often sounds. Ecstasy and spirituality often merge with a painful fascination with death (J. Donne's treatise Biotanatos, published in 1644; poetry by J. B. Chassinier). A recipe against this fascination can be both stoic indifference to suffering (A. Gryphius) and sublimated eroticism (F. Deporte, T. Carew). The tragedy of B. partly has a socio-historical. determinism (wars in France, Germany, etc.).
Marked by stylistic sophistication and rich rhetoric. figures (repetitions, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations , oxymorons etc.), B.'s poetry developed within the nat. variants: gongorism and conceptism (in which the deliberate semantic obscurity inherent in B. was expressed with particular force) in Spain, Marinism in Italy, metaphysical school and euphuism in England. Along with secular, courtly, and salon (V. Voiture) works, sacred poems (P. Fleming, J. Herbert, J. Lubrano) occupy an important place in B.'s poetry. The most popular genres are sonnet, epigram, madrigal, satire, religion. and heroic poem, etc.
For Western Europe B. is extremely significant genre of the novel; It is in this genre that B. most fully reveals itself as an international style: for example, the Latin-language novel Argenida by J. Barclay (1621) becomes a model for narration. prose of the entire Zap. Europe. Along with real-everyday and satirical. modifications of the baroque novel (C. Sorel, P. Scarron, A. Furetier, I. Mosheros) enjoyed great success with his gallant heroic. variety (J. de Scudery and M. de Scudery, J. Marini, D. K. von Loenstein). T. n. high novel B. attracted readers not only intricate twists and turns, an abundance of lit. and political allusions and ingenious combination of "romantic" and cognizant. started, but also means its own. volume, which can be considered one of the manifestations of the baroque "poetics of amazement", striving to embrace the world in all its bizarre diversity. In terms of structural features, religion is close to the gallant-heroic. novel B. (J. P. Camus, A. J. Brignole Sale).
In the culture of B., marked by increased theatricality, an important place is occupied by the dramatic. genres - as secular ( Elizabethan drama in England, pastoral tragicomedy, "new comedy" in Spain), and religious (Spanish auto, biblical drama J. van den Vondel). The early dramaturgy of P. Corneille also belongs to B.; his "Comic Illusion" (1635-36) - an encyclopedia of theatrical genres of the 16th-17th centuries.
Lit-ra B., following the lit-roy of Mannerism, gravitates towards genre experiments and a mixture of genres (the emergence of the essay genre, iroikomic and burlesque poems, opera-tragicomedy). H. von Grimmelshausen's "Simplicissimus" combines elements of picaresque, allegorical, utopian, pastoral novels, as well as the style of schwanks and popular prints. The learned Christian epic "Paradise Lost" by J. Milton (1667-74) includes a number of small genres - ode, hymn, pastoral eclogue, georgics, epithalamus, complaint, alba, etc.
A characteristic feature of B., paradoxically combined with a tendency towards anormativity, is a tendency to theoretical. self-understanding: the treatises "Wit and the Art of the Sophisticated Mind" by B. Gracian y Morales (1642–48), "Aristotle's Spyglass" by E. Tesauro (published in 1655). A number of B.'s novels include lit.-aesthetic. commentary: “The Mad Shepherd” by C. Sorel (1627), “The Dog of Diogenes” by F. F. Frugoni (1687–89); "Assenat" F. von Cesen (1670).
In glory. countries B. has a number of features that allow us to talk about "Slavic B." as a special modification of style (the term was proposed in 1961 by A. Andyal). In some cases, it is palpable secondary in relation to Western European. samples (J. Morshtyn as the successor of Marinism in Polish poetry), but the first Polish. the poetics of M. K. Sarbevsky (“Praecepta poetica”, early 1620s) is ahead of the treatises of B. Gracian y Morales and E. Tesauro. The highest achievements of glory. B. are associated with poetry (philosophical and love lyrics in Poland, religious poetry in the Czech Republic). In Russian lit. B. is less pronounced tragic. attitude, he is inherent in the front, state. pathos, enlightenment beginning, strongly expressed by the founder of the poetic. B. in Russia Simeon Polotsky, his student Sylvester (Medvedev) and Karion Istomin. In the 18th century B. traditions were supported Feofan Prokopovich And Stefan Yavorsky; narrate. the structures of the baroque novel are used in Masonic prose (Cadmus and Harmony by M. M. Kheraskov, 1786).
Style B. prevailed in Europe. prof. music 17 - 1st floor. 18th century The boundaries of the era of B., as well as traditional. the division into stages of early (1st half of the 17th century), mature (2nd half of the 17th century), and late (1st half of the 18th century) B., is very arbitrary, since B. affirmed in the music of different countries non-simultaneously. In Italy, B. declared itself at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries, that is, about 2 decades earlier than in Germany, and in Russian. music, it penetrated only in the last quarter. 17th century in connection with the spread partes singing .
In modern B.'s view is a complex style that combines the diverse manners of composition and performance, that is, the actual "styles" in the understanding of the muses. theorists of the 17th-18th centuries. (“church”, “theatrical”, “concert”, “chamber”), national styles. schools and composers. The diversity of belles-lettres in music is clearly manifested when comparing such stylistic styles that are so far from each other. regarding compositions, like operas by F. Cavalli and G. Purcell, polyphonic. j cycles. frescobaldi and violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, Sacred Symphonies by G. Schutz and oratorios by G. F. Handel. They, however, demonstrate the meaning. degree of generality when comparing them with samples of Renaissance music of the 16th century. and with the classic style 2nd floor. 18 - beg. 19th centuries As in previous music-historical. era, the musical in B. is closely connected with the extra-musical (word, number, dance movement); however, a new phenomenon also arises - the isolation of purely musical methods of organization, which made possible the flourishing of instrumental music genres.
The B. era in music is often called the era of the general bass, thereby noting the wide distribution and important role of this system of composing, recording and performing music. Possibility of different deciphering the general bass testifies to the specifics of baroque compositions - their fundamental variability and significant dependence on a specific performing embodiment, in which the performers (as a rule, in the absence of detailed author's instructions in the musical text) have to determine the tempo, dynamic. nuances, instrumentation, the ability to use melodic. decorations, etc. up to mean. roles improvisation in a number of genres (for example, in the "untimed" preludes of the French harpsichordists of the 17th century L. Couperin, N. Lebesgue, and others, in the cadences of soloists in instrumental concerts of the 18th century, in the reprise sections of da capo arias).
B. - the first style in the history of Europe. music with the obvious dominance of the major-minor tonal system (see Harmony, Tonality). It was within the framework of B. that homophony first declared itself (the division of musical texture into the main melodic voice and accompaniment). At the same time, the free style of polyphony and its highest form, fugue, formed and reached its peak (in the work of J.S. Bach); B.'s music uses b. h. mixed type of texture, combining elements of polyphony and homophony. It is at this time that individualization takes shape. music thematism. As a rule, baroque music. the theme consists of a bright initial intonational core followed by a more or less continued. unfolding, leading to a brief completion - cadence. Baroque themes, as well as whole compositions, in comparison with classical ones, based on a rather rigid song and dance framework, are characterized by much greater meter-rhythmic freedom.
In the epoch of B. music expanded its expressions. opportunities, especially in an effort to convey the diversity of human emotional experiences; they appeared in the form of generalized emotional states - affects (see. Affect theory). However, ch. the task of music in the era of B. was considered the glorification of God. Therefore, in the genre hierarchy, fixed in the theoretical. treatises of that time, the primacy was invariably assigned to the genres of church music. Nevertheless, in practice, secular music proved to be no less significant, especially in the field of music. theater. It was during the epoch of B. that a very long period of its history was formed and passed by the most important musical stage. genre - opera, the degree of distribution and development of which was largely an indicator of the level of muses. culture of a particular country. Venice (the late C. Monteverdi, F. Cavalli, M. A. Chesti), Rome (S. Landi), Naples (A. Scarlatti), Hamburg (German operas by R. Kaiser , G. F. Handel), Vienna (Honor, A. Caldara, I. J. Fuchs), Paris (J. B. prelude, fugue, choral variations, etc.), nevertheless, had no liturgical ., but a concert appointment. Other genres of instrumental music were also actively used: trio sonata(A. Corelli, G. F. Teleman and others), dance suite for decomp. compositions - from the harpsichord or violin solo to large ensembles (F. Couperin, J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and others), a concerto for a solo instrument with an orchestra (A. Vivaldi, J. S. Bach and others. ), concerto grosso(Corelli, Handel). In the concerto grosso (an ensemble-orchestral concert with a group of soloists singled out), the characteristic qualities of B. were clearly manifested - the active use of the principle of concerto, contrasting comparisons of sound masses of different density (many vocal compositions of the B. era, including the so-called. spiritual concerts, which became especially widespread in Russia in the late 17th–18th centuries).
The connection with rhetoric is expressed as in the general principles of the location of the muses. material, and in the use of specific melodic-rhythmic. revolutions with established semantics - the so-called. music-rhetoric. figures that, in vocal music, enhanced the meaning of the verbal text, and in instrumental music, to a certain extent, made it possible to “decipher” the figurative content (however, to reveal the content of F. Couperin, J. F. Rameau, G. F. Telemann, instrumental compositions were often given characteristic names, and I. Froberger, I. Kunau, A. Vivaldi even accompanied them with detailed literary programs). However, instrumental music, deprived of the support of the word, which largely retained its applied functions (dance, drinking, etc.), gradually acquired an aesthetic. self-worth, turning into a proper concert.
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