Lecture #26
Literature of Latin America
Plan
1. Distinctive features of Latin American literature.
2. Magic realism in the work of G. G. Marquez:
a) magical realism in literature;
b) a brief overview of the life and creative path of the writer;
c) the ideological and artistic originality of the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude.
1. Distinctive features of Latin American literature
In the middle of the twentieth century, the Latin American novel is experiencing a real boom. The works of Argentine writers Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortazar, Cuban Alejo Carpentier, Colombian Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Mexican novelist Carlos Fuentes, Peruvian prose writer Mario Vargas Lluos are becoming widely known not only outside their countries, but also outside the continent. Somewhat earlier, the Brazilian prose writer Jorge Amado and the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda won world recognition. Interest in Latin American literature was not accidental: there was a discovery of the culture of a distant continent with its own customs and traditions, nature, history and culture. But the point is not only in the cognitive value of the works of Latin American writers. The prose of South America has enriched world literature with masterpieces, the appearance of which is natural. Latin American prose of the 1960s and 1970s made up for the lack of epic. The authors listed above spoke on behalf of the people, telling the world about the formation of new nations as a result of the European invasion of the continent inhabited by Indian tribes, reflected the presence in the subconscious of the people of ideas about the Universe that existed in the pre-Columbian era, revealed the formation of a mythopoetic vision of natural and social cataclysms in the conditions of synthesis various international cultures. In addition, the appeal to the genre of the novel required Latin American writers to assimilate and adapt genre patterns to specific literature.
Success came to Latin American writers as a result of the fusion of history and myth, epic traditions and avant-garde searches, the refined psychologism of the realists and the variety of pictorial forms of the Spanish Baroque. In the variety of talents of Latin American writers, there is something that unites them, most often expressed by the formula "magic realism", in which the organic unity of fact and myth is fixed.
2. Magic realism in the work of G. G. Marquez
A. Magical Realism in Literature
The term magical realism was introduced by the German critic F. Roch in his monograph "Post-expressionism" (1925), where he stated the formation of magical realism as a new method in art. The term magical realism was originally used by Franz Roch to describe a painting that depicted an altered reality.
Magic realism is one of the most radical methods of artistic modernism, based on the rejection of the ontologization of visual experience characteristic of classical realism. Elements of this trend can objectively be found in most representatives of modernism (although not all of them state their adherence to this method).
The term magical realism in relation to literature was first proposed by the French critic Edmond Jaloux in 1931. He wrote: "The role of magical realism is to find in reality what is strange, lyrical and even fantastic in it - those elements that make everyday life accessible to poetic, surrealistic and even symbolic transformations."
Later, the same term was used by the Venezuelan Arturo Uslar-Petri to describe the work of some Latin American writers. The Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier (a friend of Uslar-Petri) used the term lo real maravilloso (approximate translation - miraculous reality) in the preface to his story The Kingdom of the Earth (1949). Carpentier's idea was to describe a kind of heightened reality in which strange-looking elements of the miraculous can appear. The works of Carpentier had a strong influence on the European boom of the genre, which began in the 60s of the XX century.
Elements of magical realism:
B. A brief overview of the life and work of the writer
Gabriel Garcia Marquez(b. 1928) is central to the process literature of Latin American countries. Nobel Prize winner (1982). The Colombian writer, using specific historical material, was able to show the general patterns of the formation of civilization in South America. Combining the ancient pre-Columbian beliefs of the peoples who inhabited a distant continent with the traditions of European culture, revealing the originality of the national character of the Creoles and Indians, he created the heroic epic of his people based on the material of the struggle for independence under the leadership of Simon Bolivar, who became president of Colombia. Along with this, based on realities, Marquez impressively revealed the tragic consequences of the civil wars that have rocked Latin America for the past two centuries.
The future writer was born in the small town of Aracataca on the Atlantic coast in a family of hereditary military. He studied at the Faculty of Law in Bogota, collaborated with the press. As a correspondent for one of the capital's newspapers, he visited Rome and Paris.
In 1957, during the World Festival of Youth and Students, he came to Moscow. Since the early 1960s, Marquez has lived mainly in Mexico.
In the work, the action takes place in a remote Colombian village. Somewhere nearby is the town of Macondo, mentioned in the story, in which all the events of the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) will be concentrated. But if in the story "Nobody Writes to the Colonel" the influence of E. Hemingway, who portrayed similar characters, is noticeable, then in the novel, the tradition of W. Faulkner is noticeable, who thoroughly recreated a tiny world in which the laws of the universe are reflected.
In the works created after One Hundred Years of Solitude, the writer continues to develop similar motifs. He is still occupied with the topical problem for Latin American countries: "the tyrant and the people." In the novel "Autumn of the Patriarch" (1975), Marquez creates the most generalized image of the ruler of an unnamed country. Resorting to grotesque images, the author makes visible the relationship between the totalitarian ruler and the people, based on suppression and voluntary submission, characteristic of the political history of Latin American countries in the 20th century.
B. Ideological and artistic originality of the novel "One Hundred Years of Solitude"
One Hundred Years of Solitude was published in 1967 in Buenos Aires. The writer went to this work for 20 years. The success was overwhelming. The circulation amounted to more than half a million copies in 3.5 years, which is sensational for Latin America. The world is talking about a new era in the history of the novel and realism. On the pages of numerous works, the term "magical realism" flashed. This is how the narrative style inherent in Marquez's novel and the works of many Latin American writers was defined.
"Magical realism" is characterized by unlimited freedom, with which the writers of Latin America compare the sphere of the groundedness of everyday life and the sphere of the innermost depths of consciousness.
The town of Macondo, founded by the ancestor of the Buenía family clan, the inquisitive and naive José Arcadio, has been the center of action for a hundred years. This is a symbolic image in which the local flavor of a semi-rural village and the features of the city, characteristic of modern civilization, have merged.
Using folklore and mythological motifs and parodying various artistic traditions, Marquez created a phantasmagoric world, the history of which, refracting the real historical features of Colombia and all of Latin America, is also comprehended as a metaphor for the development of mankind as a whole.
The eccentric Jose Arcadio Buendia, the founder of the branched family of Buendia, in the village of Macondo he founded, succumbed to the temptation of the gypsy Melquíades and believed in the miraculous power of alchemy.
The author introduces alchemy into the novel, not only to show the eccentricities of José Arcadio Buendia, who was alternately fond of the magic of magnetism, magnifiers, spyglasses. In fact, José Arcadio Buendía, “the smartest man in the village, ordered the houses to be built in such a way that no one had to expend more effort than the rest in going to the river for water; he marked out the streets so intelligently that during the hot hours of the day, an equal amount of sunlight fell on each dwelling. Alchemy in the novel is a kind of refrain of loneliness, not eccentricity. The alchemist is as eccentric as he is lonely. And yet, loneliness is primary. It is quite possible to say that alchemy is the lot of loner eccentrics. In addition, alchemy is a kind of adventurism, and in the novel, almost all the men and women belonging to the Buendia clan are adventurers.
Spanish researcher Sally Ortiz Aponte believes that "the stamp of esotericism lies on Latin American literature." Belief in miracles and witchcraft, especially characteristic of the European Middle Ages, having fallen on Latin American soil, was enriched with Indian myths. Magic as an integral part of being is present not only in the works of Marquez, but also in other major Latin American writers - Argentines Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortazar, Guatemalan Miguel Angel Asturias and Cuban Alejo Carpentier. Fiction as a literary device is generally characteristic of Spanish-language literature.
Alchemists have been chasing the Philosopher's Stone for over a millennium. After all, it was believed that the lucky person who possesses it will not only become fabulously rich, but also receive a panacea for all diseases and senile ailments.
The hero of the novel needed a philosopher's stone, since he dreamed of gold: “Seduced by the simplicity of the formulas for doubling gold, Jose Arcadio Buendia courted Ursula for several weeks, luring her permission to get old coins from the treasured chest and increase them as many times as many parts can be separate the mercury... José Arcadio Buendía threw thirty doubloons into a saucepan and melted them together with the orpiment, copper shavings, mercury and lead. Then he poured it all into a pot of castor oil and boiled over high heat until a thick, fetid syrup was obtained, resembling not double gold, but ordinary molasses. After desperate and risky attempts at distillation, melting with the seven planetary metals, treatment with hermetic mercury and vitriol, repeated boiling in lard - for lack of rare oil - Ursula's precious inheritance turned into burnt cracklings that could not be torn off from the bottom of the pot.
We do not think that García Márquez specifically opposed chemistry to alchemy, but it turned out that adventurers and losers were associated with alchemy, and quite decent people were related to chemistry. Latin American researcher Maria Eulalia Montener Ferrer reveals the etymology of the surname Buendia, which sounds like the usual greeting buen dia - good afternoon. It turns out that this word had a different meaning for a long time: it was the name of the Hispanic immigrants from the Old World - "losers and mediocre people."
The action of the novel continues during the 19th century. However, this time is conditional, since the author presents events as occurring in this particular period of time and always. The contours of the dates are vague, from this there is a feeling that the Buendia family was born in archaic times.
One of the strange upheavals in the novel is connected with the loss of memory by the old and young Buendia, and then by all the inhabitants of Macondo. The loss of the past threatens the people with deprivation of self-worth and integrity. The epic performs the function of historical memory. In Colombia, as in other countries of this continent, there was no heroic epic. Marquez takes on an exceptional mission: to compensate for the lack of epic with his work. The author saturates the narrative with myths, legends, beliefs that existed in Latin American society. All this gives the novel a folk flavor.
The heroic epic of different peoples is dedicated to the formation of the clan, and then the family. The rallying of individual clans into a single clan occurred as a result of wars that divided people into friends and foes. But Marquez is a writer of the twentieth century, therefore, while maintaining an ethically neutral manner of recreating battle events, he nevertheless convinces that war, and especially civil war, is the greatest disaster of modern civilization.
The novel traces the family chronicle of six generations of Buendia. Some relatives turn out to be temporary guests in the family and on earth, die young or leave their father's house. Others, like Big Mama, remain the guardians of the family hearth for a century. In the Buendía family there are forces of attraction and repulsion. Blood ties are inseparable, but Amaranta's hidden hatred for her brother's wife pushes her to crime. And the super-personal craving for the family connects Jose Arcadio and Rebeca not only by family, but also by marriage. Both of them are adopted in the Buendia family and, having entered into marriage, they consolidate their devotion to the family. All this happens not as a result of calculation, but on a subconscious intuitive level.
The role of the epic hero is given in the novel by Aureliano Buendia. What makes an amateur poet and a modest jeweler leave their craft, leave the workshop for the vast world to fight, having, in fact, no political ideals? There is only one explanation for this in the novel: that is how it was written for him. The epic hero guesses his mission and carries it out.
Aureliano Buendia proclaimed himself a civil and military ruler, and at the same time a colonel. He is not a real colonel, he has only twenty young thugs under his arms at the beginning. Entering the sphere of politics and war, Marquez does not renounce grotesque and fantastic writing techniques, but strives for authenticity in depicting political cataclysms.
The hero’s biography begins with the famous phrase: “Colonel Aureliano Buendia raised thirty-two armed uprisings and lost all thirty-two. He had seventeen male children by seventeen women, and all his sons were killed in one single night, before the eldest of them was thirty-five years old.
Colonel Aureliano Buendia appears in the story in various guises. Subordinates and those around him see him in the area of the hero, his mother considers him the executioner of his own people and his family. Showing miracles of courage, he is invulnerable to bullets, poison and daggers, but because of his carelessly thrown word, all his sons die.
An idealist, he leads an army of liberals, but soon realizes that his associates are no different from enemies, as they both fight for power and land ownership. Having gained power, Colonel Buendia is doomed to complete loneliness and degradation of personality. Repeating in his dreams the exploits of Bolivar and anticipating the political slogans of Che Guevara, the colonel dreams of a revolution throughout Latin America. The writer limits the revolutionary events to the framework of one town, where, in the name of his own ideas, a neighbor shoots a neighbor, brother - brother. The civil war in the interpretation of Marquez is a fratricidal war in the literal and figurative sense.
The Buendia family is destined to last a hundred years. The names of parents and grandfathers will be repeated in the descendants, their fates will vary, but everyone who at birth receives the names Aureliano or Jose Arcadio will inherit family oddities and eccentricities, excessive passions and loneliness.
Loneliness, inherent in all Marques characters, is a passion for self-affirmation through trampling on loved ones. Loneliness becomes especially evident when Colonel Aureliano, at the zenith of his glory, orders a circle with a diameter of three meters to be drawn around him so that no one, not even his mother, dares to approach him.
Only the progenitor Ursula is devoid of selfish feelings. With its extinction, the family also dies out. The Buendias will touch the blessings of civilization, they will be affected by banking fever, some of them will get rich, some will go bankrupt. But the time for the approval of bourgeois laws is not their time. They belong to the historical past and quietly leave Macondo one after another. An unrecognizably changed city, founded by the first Buendia, will be demolished by a hurricane.
The stylistic diversity of the novel "One Hundred Years of Solitude", the complex relationship between fantasy (the most important constructive element of the writer's artistic world) and reality, the mixture of prosaic tone, poetry, fantasy, and the grotesque reflect, in the author's opinion, the very "fantastic Latin American reality", incredible and ordinary at the same time, most vividly illustrating the method of "magic realism", declared by Latin American prose writers of the second half of the twentieth century.
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"One Hundred Years of Solitude" by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, "City and Dogs" by Mario Vargas Llosa, "Aleph" by Jorge Luis Borges - these and other masterpieces of Latin American literature of the last century are in this collection.Dictatorships, coups, revolutions, the terrible poverty of some, and the fantastic wealth of others, and at the same time the wild fun and optimism of ordinary people - this is how you can briefly describe most of the countries of Latin America in the 20th century. And do not forget about the amazing synthesis of different cultures, peoples and beliefs.
The paradoxes of history and exuberant color inspired many writers of this region to create genuine literary masterpieces that have enriched world culture. We will talk about the most striking works in our material.
"Captains of the Sand" Jorge Amado (Brazil)
One of the main novels of Jorge Amado, the most famous Brazilian writer of the 20th century. "Captains of the Sand" is the story of a gang of street children who hunted theft and robbery in the state of Bahia in the 1930s. It was this book that formed the basis of the legendary film Generals of the Sandpits, which acquired a cult status in the USSR.
Morel's Invention. Adolfo Bioy Casares (Argentina)
The most famous book of the Argentine writer Adolfo Bioy Casares. A novel that deftly balances on the verge of mysticism and science fiction. The protagonist, fleeing from persecution, ends up on a distant island. There he meets strange people who do not pay any attention to him. Watching them day after day, he learns that everything that happens on this piece of land is a holographic movie recorded long ago, a virtual reality. And it is impossible to leave this place ... while the invention of a certain Morel is working.
"Senior President". Miguel Angel Asturias (Guatemala)
The most famous novel by Miguel Angel Asturias, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1967. In it, the author draws a typical Latin American dictator - Senior President. In this character, the writer reflects the whole essence of the cruel and senseless authoritarian rule, aimed at his own enrichment through the oppression and intimidation of ordinary people. This book is about a man for whom ruling a country means robbing and killing its inhabitants. Remembering the dictatorship of the same Pinochet (and other no less bloody dictators), we understand how accurate this artistic prophecy of Asturias turned out to be.
"Kingdom of the Earth". Alejo Carpentier (Cuba)
One of the most famous works of the largest Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier. In the historical novel "Kingdom of the Earth" he tells about the mysterious world of the inhabitants of Haiti, whose life is inextricably linked with the mythology and magic of Voodoo. In fact, he put this poor and mysterious island on the literary map of the world, in which magic and death are intertwined with fun and dancing.
"Aleph". Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina)
The most famous collection of stories by the outstanding Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. In "Aleph" he turned to the motives of the search - the search for the meaning of life, truth, love, immortality and creative inspiration. Masterfully using the symbols of infinity (especially mirrors, libraries (which Borges loved so much!) And labyrinths), the author not only gives answers to questions, but makes the reader think about the reality around him. The point is not so much in the search results, but in the process itself.
"Death of Artemio Cruz". Carlos Fuentes (Mexico)
The central novel of one of the most famous Mexican prose writers of the last century. It tells the story of the life of Artemio Cruz, a former revolutionary and associate of Pancho Villa, and now one of the richest magnates in Mexico. Having come to power as a result of an armed uprising, Cruz begins to enrich himself furiously. To satisfy his greed, he does not hesitate to resort to blackmail, violence and terror against anyone who gets in his way. This book is about how, under the influence of power, even the highest and best ideas die off, and people change beyond recognition. In fact, this is a kind of response to the “Senior President” of Asturias.
"Playing the Classics" Julio Cortazar (Argentina)
One of the most famous works of postmodern literature. In this novel, the famous Argentine writer Julio Cortazar tells the story of Horacio Oliveira, a man who is in a difficult relationship with the outside world and reflects on the meaning of his own existence. In The Classics Game, the reader himself chooses the plot of the novel (in the preface, the author offers two reading options - according to a plan specially developed by him or in the order of chapters), and the content of the book will depend directly on his choice.
"City and Dogs". Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru)
"The City and the Dogs" is an autobiographical novel by the famous Peruvian writer, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010, Mario Vargas Llosa. The action of the book takes place within the walls of a military school, where they try to make “real men” out of teenage children. The methods of upbringing are simple - first to break and humiliate a person, and then turn him into a thoughtless soldier who lives by the charter. After the publication of this anti-war novel, Vargas Llosa was accused of betrayal and aiding the Ecuadorian emigrants. And several copies of his book were solemnly burned on the parade ground of the Cadet School of Leoncio Prado. However, this scandal only added popularity to the novel, which became one of the best literary works of Latin America of the 20th century. It has also been filmed multiple times.
"One Hundred Years of Solitude" Gabriel Garcia Marquez (Colombia)
Legendary novel by Colombian master of magical realism, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, winner of the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature. In it, the author tells the 100-year history of the provincial town of Macondo, standing in the middle of the jungles of South America. This book is recognized as a masterpiece of Latin American prose of the 20th century. In fact, Marquez managed to describe the whole continent with all its contradictions and extremes.
"When I want to cry, I don't cry." Miguel Otero Silva (Venezuela)
Miguel Otero Silva is one of Venezuela's greatest writers. His novel “When I want to cry, I don’t cry” is dedicated to the life of three young people - an aristocrat, a terrorist and a bandit. Despite the fact that they have different social origins, they all share the same destiny. Everyone is in search of their place in life, and everyone is destined to die for their beliefs. In this book, the author masterfully paints a picture of Venezuela during the military dictatorship, and also shows the poverty and inequality of that era.
The content of the article
LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE- the literature of the peoples of Latin America, which are characterized by a common historical path (colonization after the invasion of Europeans and the liberation of most of them after the overthrow of colonialism in the 19th century) and common features of social life. Most Latin American countries are also characterized by a common language - Spanish, and hence the influence of the Spanish cultural heritage. In part, there is, in addition, Portuguese influence, as in Brazil, and French, as in Haiti, which also affected the language. The complexity of the cultural processes taking place in Latin America lies in the difficulty of self-identification of both individual peoples and the entire region as a whole.
The European-Christian tradition, brought by the conquerors, in Latin America came into contact with the autochthonous culture. At the same time, there was a huge gap between the book literature brought from Spain and folk art. Under these conditions, the chronicles of the discovery of the New World and the conquest, as well as the Creole chronicles of the 17th century, acted as epic for Latin American literature.
The culture of the peoples of pre-Columbian America was very heterogeneous due to their different levels of development. If the peoples inhabiting the Caribbean region and the Amazon did not have a written language and only their oral traditions were preserved, then the highly developed civilizations of the Incas, Maya and Aztecs left writing monuments that were very diverse in genres. These are mythological and historical epic, poetic works on the theme of military prowess, philosophical and love lyrics, dramatic works and prose narratives.
Among the epic works created by the Aztecs, a partially preserved epic about the cultural hero Quetzalcoatl, who created people and gave them maize, stands out. In one of the fragments, Quetzalcoatl descends into the realm of the dead in order to obtain the bones of the dead, from which new generations should grow. In addition, numerous poetic works of the Aztecs have survived: hymn poetry and lyrical poetry, which is distinguished by a variety of plots, which is characterized by well-developed symbolism of images (jaguar - night, eagle - sun, quetzal (dove) feathers - wealth and beauty). Most of these works are anonymous.
Many literary works of the Mayan peoples have come down in the records of the 16th and 17th centuries, made in Latin. The most famous historical chronicles Annals of the kakchikels, holy books Chilam Balam and epic Popol Vuh.
Annals of the kakchikels- historical chronicles of the mountain Maya, a prose work, the first part of which tells about the history of the Kaqchikel and Quiche peoples before the Spanish conquest, the second part tells about the arrival of the Spaniards in the country and their conquest of the country.
Popol Vuh (book of the people) is an epic work written between 1550 and 1555 in rhythmic prose in the Guatemalan Maya Quiche language. Popol Vuh was created by an Indian author who wished to sing the best qualities of his people - courage, courage, loyalty to the interests of the people. The author does not mention the events associated with the conquest, deliberately limiting the narrative to the Indian world and worldview. The book contains ancient cosmogonic myths about the creation of the world and the deeds of the gods, the mythical and historical legends of the Quiche people - their origin, encounters with other peoples, stories of long wanderings and the creation of their own state, and traces the chronicle of the reign of the Quiche kings up to 1550. The original book was discovered in the 18th century Dominican monk Francisco Jimenez in the highlands of Guatemala. He copied the Mayan text and translated it into Spanish. The original was subsequently lost. Book Popol Vuh was of considerable importance for the self-identification of the peoples of Latin America. So, for example, by his own admission, work on the translation Popol Vuha completely changed the worldview of such a major future author as Miguel Angel Asturias.
Books Chilam Balam(books Prophet Jaguar) - recorded in Latin in the 17th-18th centuries. Yucatán Maya books. This is an extensive collection of prophetic texts, specially written in a vague language, saturated with mythological images. Divinations in them are made according to twenty-year periods (katuns) and annual periods (tuns). According to these books, the predictions of the events of the day, as well as the fate of newborns, were determined. Prophetic texts are interspersed with astrological and mythological texts, medical prescriptions, descriptions of ancient Mayan rites and historical chronicles from the time of the appearance of the Itza tribe in the Yucatan (10-11 centuries) to the early colonial period. Part of the fragments is a record of ancient hieroglyphic books made in Latin. Currently 18 books are known Chilam Balam.
Poetic works of the Maya have hardly survived, although such works undoubtedly existed before the conquest. The poetic creativity of the Mayan peoples can be judged by the compilation of Ah-Bam in the 18th century. collection Songbook from Zytbalche. It contains both lyrical love and cult chants - hymns in honor of various deities, hymns to the rising sun.
Historical chronicles and epic works of the Incas have not survived to our time, however, many examples of the poetic creativity of these peoples have been preserved. These include the hymns-hali and halya, which were performed during various rituals and addressed to the gods, praising the exploits of the Inca commanders. In addition, the Incas had love-lyrical songs "aravi" and elegiac songs "huanca", sung during mourning ceremonies.
It was Columbus who owned the words, which were then repeated many times by Latin American chroniclers and subsequently became decisive for the masters of Latin American literature of the 20th century, who tried, as it were, to take a fresh look at the history and life of Latin America. Columbus said that for the "things" he met in the "Indies", he could not find names, there is nothing like it in Europe.
It is also characteristic that among the heroes of the “new” historical novel, one of the leading genres of Latin American literature in the 1980s–90s, which is characterized by a rethinking of the history of the continent, Columbus occupies a considerable place ( Dogs in Paradise A. Posse, Admiral's Insomnia A. Roa Bastos), but the first in the series is the story of A. Carpentier, which anticipated this genre harp and shadow.
In the writing of the linguist, ethnographer, historian and theologian Bernardino de Sahagún (1550–1590) General History of the Things of New Spain(published in 1829-1831) clearly and accurately presented information about the mythology, astrology, religious holidays and customs of the Indians, told about the state structure, paid attention to local animals, plants and minerals, as well as the history of the conquest.
The Spanish historian and Dominican monk Bartolome de Las Casas (1474–1566) was also well acquainted with the history of the development of new lands from his own experience - as a chaplain of the detachment of the conquistador Diego Velasquez de Cuellar, he participated in the conquest of Cuba. As a reward for participating in this expedition, he received an ecomyenda, a huge allotment of land along with its inhabitants. Soon he began to preach among the Indians who lived there. Apologetic history of the Indies, which he started in 1527 (published in 1909), The shortest message about the destruction of the Indies(1552) and his main work History of the Indies(published in 1875-1876) are works that tell the story of the conquest, and the author invariably stands on the side of the enslaved and humiliated Indians. The sharpness and categorical judgments are such that, according to the author's order, History of the Indies was not to be published until his death.
Relying on his own impressions, Bartolome de Las Casas, nevertheless, used other sources in his work, but whether they are archival documents or testimonies of participants in the events, they all serve to prove that the conquest is a violation of both human laws and divine regulations, and therefore must be stopped immediately. At the same time, the history of the conquest of America is presented by the author as the conquest and destruction of the "earthly Paradise" (this image significantly influenced the artistic and historiographic concept of some Latin American authors of the 20th century). Not only the writings of Bartolome de Las Casas (it is known that he created more than eight dozen different works), but his actions are striking and characteristic. His attitude towards the Indians (he refused ecomienda), the struggle for their rights eventually brought him the royal title "Patron of the Indians of all India." In addition, he was the first in the Americas to be tonsured. Despite the fact that the major works of de Las Casas in the 19th century. were little known, his letters to a large extent influenced Simon Bolivar and other fighters for the independence of Mexico.
Of particular interest are the five "reports" sent by the conquistador Fernan Cortes (1485-1547) to Emperor Charles V. These peculiar reports (the first letter is lost, three published in the 1520s, the last in 1842) tell about what they saw during the conquest of Central Mexico , about the seizure of territories near the capital of the Aztec state of Tenochtitlan and a campaign in Honduras. In these documents, the influence of the chivalric novel is discernible (the deeds of the conquistadors and their moral character are presented as the deeds of knights with their chivalric code), while the author considers the conquered Indians as children who need patronage and protection, which, in his opinion, can only be provided by a strong state headed by an ideal ruler). Dispatches, which are distinguished by high literary merit and expressive details, have been repeatedly used by Latin American authors as a source of artistic themes and images.
Something similar to these "reports" and Letter to King Don Manuel(1500), addressed to the monarch of Portugal, the author of which Peru Vaz di Caminha accompanied during the expedition of Admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral, who discovered Brazil.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1495 or 1496-1584) as a soldier came to Mexico with Fernand Cortes, and therefore The true story of the conquest of New Spain(1563, published in 1632) insisted on his right to speak on behalf of a witness to events. Arguing with official historiography, he writes in simple colloquial language about the details of the military campaign, while not overestimating Cortes and his associates, but not criticizing them for their harshness and greed, as some authors do. Nevertheless, the Indians are also not the object of his idealization - dangerous enemies, however, in the eyes of the chronicler, they are not without positive human traits. With some inaccuracies in terms of names and dates, the essay is interesting for its specificity, the complexity of the images of the characters, and in some respects (entertainment, liveliness of the narration) can be compared with a chivalric romance.
The Peruvian chronicler Filipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (1526 or 1554-1615), left a single work - First new chronicle and good government on which he worked for forty years. The work, discovered only in 1908, is a Spanish text, but interspersed with Quechua, and half of the extensive manuscript is occupied by drawings with captions (unique examples of pictography). This author, an Indian by origin who converted to Catholicism and was in the Spanish service for some time, considers the conquest as a just act: through the efforts of the conquistadors, the Indians return to the righteous path that they lost during the Inca rule (it should be noted that the author belonged to the royal family of Yarovilkov , which the Incas pushed into the background), and Christianization contributes to such a return. The chronicler considers the genocide against the Indians unjust. The chronicle, variegated in composition, which absorbed both legend, and autobiographical motifs, and memories, and satirical passages, contains ideas of social reorganization.
Another Peruvian chronicler, Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (c. 1539–c. 1616), a mestizo (his mother was an Inca princess, his father was a high-born Spanish nobleman), a European-educated person, who nevertheless knew the history and culture of the Indians perfectly, became famous as an author essays Genuine commentaries that tell about the origin of the Incas, the rulers of Peru, about their beliefs, laws and government in a time of war and a time of peace, about their lives and victories, about everything that this empire and republic was before the arrival of the Spaniards(1609), the second part of which was published under the title General history of Peru(published in 1617). The author, who used both archival documents and oral stories of priests, believing that the Indians and Spaniards are equal before God and condemning the horrors of the conquest, at the same time claims that the conquest itself, which brings Christianity to the indigenous population, is a boon for them, although the culture and customs of the Incas also praised by the author. This work, according to some researchers, influenced T. Campanella, M. Montaigne and French enlighteners. Among other works by the same author, translation Dialogues about love Leon Ebreo (published in 1590) and Florida(1605), historical work on the expedition of the conquistador Hernando de Soto.
Works created in the genre of an epic poem partly adjoin the works of the chroniclers. Such is the poem araucana(the first part was published in 1569, the second in 1578, the third in 1589) of the Spaniard Alonso de Ercilia y Zunigi (1533–1594), who participated in the suppression of the Indian uprising and, based on his direct impressions, created a work dedicated to the Spanish war and Araucan Indians. Spanish characters in Araucan have prototypes and are called by their original names, it is also important that the author began to create a poem in the midst of events, the first part was started on scraps of paper and even on pieces of tree bark. The Indians of the author, who idealizes them, are somewhat reminiscent of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in addition (this distinguishes Araucan from works on the theme of the conquest), the Indians are shown as a proud people, the bearer of a high culture. The poem gained immense popularity and gave rise to a number of similar works.
So, the soldier, and later the priest Juan de Castellanos (1522-1605 or 1607), the author Elegies on the Glorious Men of the Indies(the first part was published in 1598, the second in 1847, the third in 1886), at first he wrote his work in prose, but then, under the influence Araucans, remade it into a heroic poem written in royal octaves. The poetic chronicle, which outlined the biographies of people who became famous during the conquest of America (among them Christopher Columbus), owes much to the literature of the Renaissance. A significant role was played by the author's own impressions of the poem, and the fact that he was personally acquainted with many of his heroes.
In controversy with the poem araucana created an epic poem Tamed Arauco(1596) Creole Pedro de Ogni (1570?–1643?), a representative of both Chilean and Peruvian literature. The author, who participated in the battles against the rebellious Indians, describes the deeds of the viceroy of Peru, the Marquis de Canette. Of his other works, one should name a poetic chronicle Earthquake in Lima(1635) and a religious poem Ignacius of Cantabria(1639), dedicated to Ignatius of Loyola.
The epic poems of Martin del Barco Centenera Argentina and the conquest of the Rio de la Plata and other events in the kingdoms of Peru, Tucuman and the state of Brazil(1602) and Gaspar Perez de Villagra History of New Mexico(1610) are interesting not so much as poetic works, but as documentary evidence.
Bernardo de Balbuena (1562–1627), Spaniard who was brought to Mexico as a child, later Bishop of Puerto Rico, famous for a poem in eight chapters The grandeur of Mexico City(publ. - 1604), which became one of the first works in the Creole Baroque style. The brilliant and rich city is presented as a paradise on earth, and the "wild Indian" loses next to all this splendor. Of the surviving works of this author (much was lost when his personal library was destroyed during the Dutch attack on San Jose in 1625), one can also name a heroic-fantastic poem Bernardo, or the Victory at Ronceval(1604) and pastoral romance The golden age in the Selva Eriphile of Dr. Bernardo de Balbuena, in which he authentically recreates the pastoral style of Theocritus, Virgil and Sannazaro and pleasantly imitates it(1608), where poetry is combined with prose.
Epic poem prosopopoeia(published in 1601) by the Brazilian poet Bento Teixeira, connected thematically with Brazil, was written under the strong influence of the poem Lusiads Portuguese poet Luis de Camões.
Created chronicle texts and José de Anchieta (1534-1597), nicknamed "the apostle of Brazil" for his missionary work. Nevertheless, he remained in the history of literature as the founder of Latin American dramaturgy, whose plays based on stories drawn from the Bible or hagiographic literature include elements of local folklore.
In general, the chronicles of the 16th century. can be divided into two types: these are chronicles that try to recreate the picture of the New World as fully as possible, while introducing it into the context of world history (“General stories”), and first-person narratives that are created by direct participants in certain events. The first can be correlated with the "new" novel that developed in Latin American literature of the 20th century, and the second - with the so-called "literature of evidence", that is, non-fiction, which is partly a reaction to the "new" novel.
The works of chroniclers of the 16th and 17th centuries played a special role in modern Latin American literature. Published or published for the first time in the 20th century, the works of these authors (in addition to those mentioned above, it is worth mentioning the works of Hernando de Alvarado Tesosomoka, Fernando de Alba Ixtlilxochitl, Bernardino de Sahagun, Pedro de Ciesa de Leon, Joseph de Acosta, etc.) had a huge impact and on the self-consciousness and creativity of almost all Latin American writers, regardless of the genre in which they work. So, Alejo Carpentier noted that he revised his creative settings precisely after he discovered these chronicles. Miguel Angel Asturias, in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, called the chroniclers the first Latin American writers, and The true story of the conquest of New Spain Bernal Diaz del Castillo - the first Latin American novel.
The pathos of discovering a new world and naming the things found in it, the two most important mythologemes associated with the New World - the metaphor of "earthly Paradise" and the metaphor of "incarnate Hell", which were manipulated by the followers of utopian or dystopian thought, interpreting the history of Latin America, as well as the atmosphere of expectation The “miracle” that colored the writings of the chroniclers - all this not only anticipated the search for Latin American literature of the 20th century, but also actively influenced it, defining these same searches, aimed primarily at the self-identification of Latin American culture. And in this sense, the words of Pablo Neruda are deeply true, who, in his Nobel speech, speaking of modern Latin American writers, said: "We are chroniclers, born late."
As the colonial system strengthened, Latin American culture also developed. The first printing press in Latin America appeared in Mexico City (New Spain) around 1539, and in 1584 in Lima (Peru). Thus, both capitals of the largest vice-kingdoms of the Spanish colonial empire, competing not only in splendor and wealth, but also in enlightenment, received the opportunity of their own printing. This is especially important for the reason that both cities received university privileges in 1551. For comparison, Brazil not only did not have a university, but printing itself was prohibited until the end of the colonial period).
There were many people who devoted their leisure time to writing. The theater developed, and although during the entire 16th century. theatrical action served as one of the means in missionary activity, there were also plays telling in the languages of the indigenous population about the times preceding the conquest. The authors of these works were Creoles, and in remote corners such theatrical works existed until the middle of the 19th century. However, the most widespread repertoire associated with the Spanish or Portuguese theatrical traditions. A native of Mexico, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza (1581–1639) is one of the largest Spanish playwrights of the “golden age” of Spanish literature ( cm. SPANISH LITERATURE).
Poetry is also flourishing. More than three hundred poets participated in the poetry competition held in Mexico City in 1585. An important role was played by the emergence of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. and lasted until the second half of the 18th century. Creole Baroque is an artistic style characterized by regional, purely Latin American features. This style was formed under the strong influence of such varieties of Spanish baroque as the "conceptism" of Francisco Quevedo and the "culteranism" of Luis de Gongora, to whom the mentioned poetry holidays in Mexico City were often dedicated.
The characteristic features of this style can be distinguished in the poems of Bernardo de Balbuena and Pedro de Ogni, as well as in the poem christias(1611) Diego de Ojeda. They are also in the works of Francisco Bramont Matias de Bocanegra, Fernando de Alba Ixtlilxochitpla, Miguel de Guevara, Arias de Villalobos (Mexico), Antonio de Leon de Pinela, Antonio de la Calancha, Fernando de Valverde (Peru), Francisco Gaspar de Villarroel- i-Ordoñez (Chile), Hernando Dominguez Camargo, Jacinto Evia, Antonio Bastides (Ecuador).
Of the Mexican poets whose works are distinguished by local originality - Luis Sandoval y Zapata, Ambrosio Solis y Aguirre, Alonso Ramirez Vargas, Carlos Siguenza y Gongora, the work of the poetess Juana Ines de la Cruz (1648 or 1651 –1695). This woman with a difficult fate, who became a nun, also wrote prose and dramatic works, but it was her love lyrics that had the greatest influence on the emerging Latin American literature.
The Peruvian poet Juan del Valle y Caviedes (1652 or 1664–1692 or 1694) cultivated in his poems the image of a poorly educated poet, while masterfully mastering versification and knowing his contemporary literature perfectly. His collection of satirical poems Tooth of Parnassus was able to be published only in 1862, and in the form in which the author prepared it, in 1873.
The Brazilian poet Grigorio de Matus Guerra (1633–1696), like Juan del Valle y Caviedes, was influenced by Francisco Queveda. Guerra's poems were widely known to the public, but the most popular were not love or religious lyrics, but satire. His sarcastic epigrams were directed not only against members of the ruling classes, but also against Indians and mulattos. The dissatisfaction of the authorities caused by these satires was so great that the poet was exiled to Angola in 1688, from where he returned shortly before his death. But his popularity among the masses was such that the "Devil's Mouthpiece", as the poet was also called, became one of the heroes of Brazilian culture.
Creole Baroque, with its central themes of "Creole homeland" and "Creole glory", as well as the abundance and wealth of Latin America, which affected metaphorical and allegorical decorativeism as a stylistic dominant, influenced the concept of baroque, which was developed in the 20th century. Alejo Carpentier and Jose Lezama Lima.
Of particular note are two epic poems that were created without regard to the Creole Baroque. Poem Uruguay(1769) José Basilio da Gama is a kind of account of a joint Portuguese-Spanish expedition, the purpose of which is an Indian reservation in the valley of the Uruguay River, which is under the control of the Jesuits. And if the original version of this work is openly pro-Jesuit, then the version that saw the light of day is absolutely opposite to it, which reflected the poet's desire to earn the favor of those in power. This work, which cannot be called historical in the full sense, is nevertheless one of the most important works of Brazilian literature of the colonial period. Particularly interesting are the lively scenes from the life of the Indians. The work is considered the first work where the features of indigenism were clearly manifested, a trend in the Creole art of Latin America, which is characterized by an interest in the life and spiritual world of the Indians.
Worthy of mention and epic poem Karamura(1781) by the Brazilian poet José de Santa Rita Duran, who was perhaps the first to make the Indians the subjects of a literary work. An epic poem in ten songs, whose protagonist Diego Alvarez, Karamuru, as the Indians call him, is dedicated to the discovery of Baya. The life of Indians and Brazilian landscapes are given an important place in this work. The poem remained the main work of the author, who destroyed most of his creations due to the fact that they did not receive immediate recognition from the public. Both of these poems should be taken as a harbinger of romanticism that soon arose in Latin American literature.
Novels were banned in Latin America, so this kind of literature appeared much later, but their place was taken by works of a historical and biographical nature. One of the best works of this kind is the satire of the Peruvian Antonio Carrio de la Bandera (1716–1778) Guide for blind travelers(1776). The author, a postal clerk who, because of the danger of persecution, wrote under a pseudonym, chose for his book the form of a story about a journey from Buenos Aires to Lima.
Late 18th and early 19th centuries. two major paradigms of Latin American culture are maturing. One of them is connected with the politicization of the artistic and life position of writers, their direct participation in political events (and in the future this state of affairs becomes almost obligatory for everyone). The Brazilian revolutionary Joaquín José de Silva Javier (1748-1792) led the so-called "Conspiracy of Poets", which was attended by famous writers. The uprising against Portuguese rule in Brazil, which he led, was crushed, and its leader, after a political process that lasted several years, was executed.
The second paradigm is the complex relationship between "territoriality" and "extraterritoriality", characteristic of a certain type of Latin American consciousness. Free movement throughout the continent, in which there is an exchange of creative discoveries and opinions (for example, the Venezuelan A. Bello lives in Chile, the Argentine D.F. Sarmiento lives in Chile and Paraguay, the Cuban Jose Marti lives in the USA, Mexico and Guatemala), in the 20th century . is transformed into a tradition of forced exile or political emigration.
Political independence from Spain and Portugal did not mark the end of despotism. Economic instability, social inequality, the oppression of Indians and blacks - all this was everyday life for the vast majority of Latin American states. The situation itself contributed to the emergence of satirical works. Mexican José Joaquín Fernández de Lisardi (1776–1827) creates a picaresque novel The life and deeds of Periquillo Sarniento, described by himself for the edification of his children(vols. 1-3 - 1813, vols. 1-5 - 1830-1831), which is considered the first Latin American novel.
The War of Independence, which lasted in Latin America from 1810 to 1825, not only affected the patriotic feelings of Latin Americans, it largely caused a surge in Latin American poetry. The Ecuadorian José Joaquín de Olmedo (1780–1847), who wrote anacreontic and bucolic lyrics in his youth, created a lyric-epic poem Victory at Junin. Song of Bolivar(published in 1825), which brought him wide fame.
Venezuelan Andres Bello (1781-1865), scientist and public figure, author of many works on history, philosophy, philology and jurisprudence, became famous as a poet who defended classicist traditions. Among his most notable works is the poem Appeal to poetry(1823) and ode Agriculture in the tropics(1826) - a fragment of an epic poem that was never written America. His opponent, who defended the positions of romanticism in the dispute about literature, the Argentine writer and public figure Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1811–1888) is an extremely revealing example of a Latin American writer. A fighter against the dictatorship of Juan Manuel Rosas, he founded a number of newspapers. His most famous work is Civilization and barbarism. Biography of Juan Facundo Quiroga. Physical appearance, customs and mores of the Argentine Republic(published in 1845), where, narrating the life of an associate of Rosas, he explores Argentine society. Subsequently, while holding the post of President of Argentina, the writer put into practice the provisions that he defended in his books.
Cuban Jose Maria Heredia y Heredia (1803–1839), a fighter for the destruction of Cuba's colonial dependence on Spain, lived almost his entire life as a political exile. If in his work On the teocalli in Cholula(1820) the struggle between classicism and romanticism is still noticeable, then in Ode Niagara(1824) wins the romantic beginning.
The same opposition between civilization and barbarism, as in the book by D.F. Sarmiento, is present in the works of other Argentine writers, in particular, in the novel by José Marmol (1817–1871) Amalia(journal var. - 1851), which is the first Argentine novel, and in an artistic and journalistic essay slaughter(published 1871) by Esteban Echeverria (1805–1851).
Among the works of the romantic genre, it is worth mentioning the novels Maria(1867) Colombian Jorge Isaacs (1837–1895), Cecilia Valdes, or Angel Hill(1st ed. - 1839) Cuban Cirilo Villaverde (1812-1894), Cumanda, or Drama Among the Wild Indians(1879) by the Ecuadorian Juan Leon Mera (1832-1894), created in line with indigenism.
Gaucho literature, an unparalleled literary genre born in Argentina and Uruguay, has produced works such as the poem by Rafael Oblegado Santos Vega(1887) about a legendary singer and written in a humorous vein fausto(1866) Estanislao del Campo. However, the highest achievement in this genre is the lyric-epic poem by the Argentine José Hernandez (1834–1886) Martin Fierro(the first part - 1872, the second part - 1879). This poem is just like Facundo(1845) by D.F. Sarmiento, became the forerunner of the subsequently developed “telluric literature.” The latter is associated with the concept of tellurism (from Spanish - earthly, soil) in Argentine philosophy, represented by the works of R. Rojas, R. Scalabrini Ortiz, E. Mallea , E. Martinez Estrada. The main thesis of tellurism is that while preserving the possibility of the secret influence of nature on man, to escape from the influence of geographical factors on culture, to enter historical existence, and thereby break through from an inauthentic culture into a genuine one.
A natural reaction to the attraction of romanticism to everything unusual and bright was the interest of some authors in everyday life, its features and traditions. Costumbrism, one of the trends in Latin American literature, whose name goes back to the Spanish "el costumbre", which translates as "custom" or "custom", was strongly influenced by Spanish costumbrism. This direction is characterized by sketches and moralistic essays, and events are often shown in a satirical or humorous perspective. Costumbrism subsequently transformed into a realistic regionalist novel.
However, realism proper for Latin American literature of this period is not typical. The work of the Chilean prose writer Alberto Blest Gana (1830–1920) develops under the strong influence of the European literary tradition, in particular, the novels of Honore de Balzac. Novels of Ghana: Arithmetic of love (1860), Martin Rivas (1862), Rake's Ideal(1853). Eugenio Cambacérès (1843–188), an Argentine naturalist who was inspired by the novels of Émile Zola, created such novels as whistling varmint(1881–1884) and Without a purpose (1885).
The combination of realism and naturalism marked the novel by the Brazilian Manuel António de Almeida (1831–1861) Memoirs of a police sergeant(1845). The same tendencies can be traced in the prose of the Brazilian Aluisio Gonçalves Azeveda (1857–1913), among whose most famous works are the novels Mulatto(1881) and Boarding house(1884). Realism marked the novels of the Brazilian Joaquín Maria Machado de Assis (1839–1908), whose work influenced Latin American literature in general.
Latin American modernism, which is characterized by its close connection with romanticism, was influenced by such major phenomena of European culture as the "Parnassian school" ( cm. PARNAS), symbolism, impressionism, etc. At the same time, as well as for European modernism, it is significant for him that the modernism of Latin America is represented in the overwhelming majority by poetic works.
One of the most prominent figures in Latin American literature of the 19th century, as well as in Latin American modernism, is the Cuban poet, thinker and politician José Julián Martí (1853–1895), who received the title from the Cuban people for his national liberation struggle against the colonial rule of Spain. "Apostle". His creative heritage includes not only poetry - a poetic cycle Ismaelillo(1882), collections free verses(published in 1913) and simple verses(1891), but also a novel fatal friendship(1885), close to the literature of modernism, sketches and essays, of which it should be noted Our America(1891), where Latin America is opposed to Anglo-Saxon America. H.Marti is also an ideal example of a Latin American writer whose life and work are merged and subordinated to the struggle for the good of all Latin America.
The Mexican Manuel Gutiérrez Najera (1859-1895) should be mentioned as another significant representative of Latin American modernism. During the life of this author, the collection saw the light fragile stories(1883), representing him as a prose writer, while poetic works were collected only in posthumous books Poetry by Manuel Gutiérrez Najera(1896) and Poetry (1897).
The Colombian José Asunción Silva (1865–1896) also earned fame only after his early death (due to financial difficulties, and also because a significant part of his manuscripts perished during a shipwreck, the poet committed suicide). His poetry collection was published in 1908, while the novel table talk– only in 1925.
The Cuban Julian del Casal (1863–1893), who wrote newspaper essays that exposed the aristocracy, became famous primarily as a poet. During his lifetime, collections were published Leaves in the wind(1890) and dreams(1892), and a posthumously published book Busts and rhymes(1894) combined poems and short prose.
The central figure of Latin American modernism was the Nicaraguan poet Ruben Dario (1867–1916). His collection Azure(1887, add. - 1890), which combined poetry and prose miniatures, became one of the most important milestones in the development of this literary movement, and in the collection Pagan psalms and other poems(1896, rev. - 1901) was the culmination of Latin American modernism.
Prominent figures of the modernist movement are the Mexican Amado Nervo (1870–1919), the author of numerous books, among which are poetry collections. poems (1901), Exodus and flowers of the road (1902), Vote (1904), Gardens of my soul(1905) and storybooks wandering souls (1906), They are(1912); Peruvian José Santos Chocano (1875–1934), who actively participated in the political life of Latin America, including fighting in the army of Francisco Villa during the Mexican Revolution. After the overthrow of the President of Guatemala, Manuel Estrada Cabrera, to whom he was an adviser, he was sentenced to death, but survived. Returning to his homeland in 1922, José Santos Chocano was awarded the title of "National Poet of Peru". Modernist tendencies are reflected in the poems, combined into collections Soul of the Americas(1906) and fiat lux (1908).
Mention should also be made of the Bolivian Ricardo Jaimes Freire (1868–1933), author of the collections Barbarian Castalia(1897) and Dreams are life(1917), Colombian Guillermo Valencia (1873–1943), author of collections Poems(1898) and Rites(1914), Uruguayan Julio Herrera y Reissiga (1875–1910), author of poetry cycles abandoned parks, Easter time, water clock(1900-1910), as well as the Uruguayan José Enrique Rodo (1871-1917), one of the largest Latin American thinkers, who considered the idea of cultural synthesis in an essay Ariel(1900) and put forward the idea that it is Latin America that should carry out such a synthesis.
Brazilian modernism stands apart, which originated in the early 1920s, the founders and central figures of which were Mario Raul Morais de Andrade (1893-1945) and José Oswald de Andrade (1890-1954).
The positive significance of Latin American modernism was reflected not only in the fact that this literary movement gathered many talented authors into its ranks, but also in the fact that it updated the poetic language and poetic technique.
Modernism also actively influenced those masters who were later able to free themselves from its influence. Thus, the Argentine poet and prose writer Leopoldo Lugones (1874–1938) began as a modernist, which was reflected in poetry collections. Golden Mountains(1897) and Twilight in the garden(1906). Enrique González Martinez (1871-1952), starting from the provisions of modernism, in the collection secret paths(1911) broke with this tradition, advocating a new poetic system.
Latin American literature of the 20th century not only unusually rich, its position among other national literatures has fundamentally changed. The changes were already reflected in the fact that the Chilean poetess Gabriela Mistral (1889-1957), the first of the Latin American writers, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945.
A huge role in this qualitative leap was played by the avant-garde search, through which most of the famous Latin American writers went through. The Chilean poet Vicente Huidobro (1893-1948) put forward the concept of "creationism", according to which the artist must create his own aesthetic reality. Among his poetry books are collections in Spanish Equatorial(1918) and citizen of oblivion(1941), and collections in French square horizon (1917), Suddenly (1925).
The Chilean poet Pablo Neruda (1904–1973), who received the Nobel Prize in 1971, began to write in avant-garde poetics, choosing “free verse” as the poetic form most adequate to his thought, over time he moves on to poetry, which reflected direct political engagement . Among his books are collections Twilight (1923), Residence - land(1933, additional - 1935), Odes to simple things (1954), New odes to simple things (1955), Birds of Chile (1966), heavenly stones(1970). His last book in his lifetime Nixon Murder Motivation and Praise for the Chilean Revolution(1973) reflected the feelings that the poet experienced after the fall of the government of President Salvador Allende.
Another major figure in Latin American literature is the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1914–1998), Nobel Prize winner in 1990, author of numerous books, including collections wild moon (1933), human root (1937), sun stone (1957), Salamander (1962).
Ultraism, an avant-garde literary movement, began with the Argentine poet and prose writer Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), one of the most revered and quoted authors of the 20th century. His collections of short stories brought him fame. General history of infamy (1935), Garden of Forking Paths (1941), fiction (1944), Aleph (1949), doer (1960).
Negrism, a literary movement whose goal was to develop an African American heritage, as well as to introduce a Negro worldview into literature, made a significant contribution to Latin American literature. Among the writers belonging to this trend are the Puerto Rican Luis Pales Matos (1898–1959) and the Cuban Nicolas Guillén (1902–1989).
The Peruvian Cesar Vallejo (1892–1938) had an active influence on the poetry of Latin America. In the first collections Black heralds(1918) and Trilse(1922) he develops avant-garde poetics, while the collection human verses(1938), published after the death of the poet, reflected the changes that had taken place in his poetics.
The plays of the Argentinean Roberto Arlt (1900-1942) and the Mexican Rodolfo Usigli (1905-1979) were created under the obvious influence of the European dramatic tradition.
Among those who developed the regional novel are the Uruguayan Horacio Quiroga (1878–1937), the Colombian José Eustasio Rivera (1889–1928), the Argentinean Ricardo Guiraldes (1886–1927), the Venezuelan Romulo Gallegos (1864–1969), the Mexican Mariano Azuela ( 1873-1952). Ecuadorian Jorge Icaza (1906–1978), Peruvians Ciro Alegria (1909–1967) and Jose Maria Arguedas (1911–1969), Guatemalan Miguel Angel Asturias (1899–1974), Nobel Prize winner in 1967 contributed to the development of indigenism.
Among the greatest prose writers of the 20th century. – Argentines Eduardo Mallea (1903–1982), Ernesto Sabato (1911–2011), Julio Cortazar (1924–1984), Manuel Puig (1933–1990), Uruguayan Juan Carlos Onetti (1909–1994), Mexicans Juan Rulfo (1918– 1984) and Carlos Fuentes (b. 1929), Cubans José Lezama Lima (1910–1976) and Alejo Carpentier (1904–1980), Brazilian Jorge Amado (1912).
The Nobel Prize was awarded in 1982 to Colombian Gabriel Garcia Marquez (b. 1928) and in 2004 to Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa (b. 1936).
Berenice Vesnina
Literature:
History of the Literature of Latin America. From ancient times to the outbreak of the War of Independence. Book. 1. M., 1985
History of the Literature of Latin America. From the War of Independence to the Completion of National State Consolidation (1810s–1870s). Book. 2. M., 1988
History of the Literature of Latin America. Late 19th – early 20th century (1880–1910s). Book. 3. M., 1994
History of the Literature of Latin America. XX century: 20–90s. Book. 4. Part 1–2. M., 2004
We offer readers a book that includes the works of the founders of Latin American modernism - the Argentinean Leopoldo Lugones (1874-1938) and the Nicaraguan Ruben Dario (1867-1916). They met in Buenos Aires at the office of a local newspaper, and a friendship developed between them that lasted until the death of Dario.
The work of both was influenced by the work of Edgar Poe, and as a result, a new genre of literary work arose - a fantastic story. The collection you hold in your hands contains the complete, unadapted text of Lugones and Dario's stories, complete with detailed commentaries and a dictionary.
The Incredible and Sad Story of the Innocent Erendira and Her Hardhearted Grandmother (compilation)
Gabriel Garcia Marquez classical prose Missing No dataThe stories in this collection refer to the “mature” period of the great Latin American writer’s work, when he had already reached perfection in the style of magical realism that glorified him and became his kind of “calling card”. Magic or grotesque can be funny - or frightening, plots - fascinating or highly conventional.
But the miraculous or the monstrous invariably becomes a part of reality - these are the rules of the game set by the writer, which the reader follows with pleasure.
Self-instruction manual of the Spanish language 2nd ed., corrected. and additional Free Software Tutorial
Nadezhda Mikhailovna Shidlovskaya Educational literature Professional educationThe textbook is focused on the formation of communication skills in Spanish within the framework of the main lexical topics of the social sphere, the acquisition of grammatical and lexical knowledge necessary for successful communication. Texts selected from the works of Spanish and Latin American writers, dialogues compiled on the basis of radio broadcasts, regional studies texts are accompanied by a dictionary of active vocabulary, lexico-grammatical commentary and reflect the current state of the Spanish language.
They will allow you to master the technique of reading, work out grammatical forms, learn the main stereotyped remarks and develop speech reactions to certain life situations. The clear structure of the textbook and the system of exercises and tests with keys developed by the authors will help in the development of basic linguistic competencies.
Exiles. Spanish Reading Book
Horacio Quiroga stories Literatura clasicaHoracio Quiroga (1878-1937) - Uruguayan writer who lived in Argentina, one of the brightest Latin American writers, a master of the short story. We bring to the attention of readers the full unadapted text of the stories with comments and a dictionary.
Partisan's daughter
Louis de Bernier Contemporary romance novels MissingLouis de Bernières, best-selling author of Captain Corelli's Mandolin, the Latin American magical trilogy, and the epic novel Wingless Birds, tells a poignant love story. He is forty, he is an Englishman, an unwilling traveling salesman. His life passes under the news on the radio and the snoring of his wife and imperceptibly turned into a swamp.
She is nineteen, she is a Serb, a retired prostitute. Her life is full of events, but she is so tired of them that she wants to fall asleep and never wake up. She tells him stories - who knows how true? He saves money, hoping to buy it one day.
Shehriyar and his Scheherazade. It looks like they are in love with each other. They are for each other - a rare chance to start all over again. But what is love? “I fell in love quite often,” he says, “but now I’m completely exhausted and I don’t understand what it means ... Every time you fall in love a little differently.
And then, the very word "love" became commonplace. And it should be sacred and intimate… Just now the thought came that love is something unnatural, which is known through films, novels and songs. How to distinguish love from lust? Well, lust is understandable. So, maybe love is a savage torture invented by lust? Perhaps the answer lies in the pages of a new book by Louis de Bernières, a writer who has an invaluable property: he is not like anyone else, and all his writings are not alike.
WH Project Mystery
Alexey Rostovtsev Spy detectives Missing No dataAleksey Aleksandrovich Rostovtsev - retired colonel who served in Soviet intelligence for a quarter of a century, of which sixteen years - abroad; writer, author of many books and publications, member of the Writers' Union of Russia. In one of the deep canyons of the Latin American country of Aurica, forgotten by God and people, the sworn enemies of humanity have built a top-secret facility where weapons are being developed to ensure their owners dominance over the world.
A few hours before his failure, the Soviet intelligence officer manages to uncover the secret of the Double-U-H object.
Orchid hunter. Spanish Reading Book
Roberto Arlt stories Prosa modernaWe bring to the attention of readers a collection of short stories by Roberto Arlt (1900-1942), an Argentine writer of the "second echelon". His name is almost unknown to the Russian reader. Three Latin American titans - Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortazar and Gabriel Garcia Marquez - hid with their powerful shadows more than a dozen names of outstanding, sometimes brilliant, writers of South America.
Arlt in his work defiantly breaks with the traditions of "good literature" of the middle classes. The genre of his work is grotesque and tragic farce. In the coarse language of the proletarian suburbs, he describes the life of the city bottom. The book contains the full unadapted text of the short stories, provided with comments and a dictionary.
The book is intended for students of language universities and all lovers of the Spanish language and literature.
Antarctica
Jose Maria Villagra Modern foreign literature Missing"An Inspiring Sermon of Inhumanity". "The amazing ability to see what is not there." Latin American critics greeted this book with such words. The Chilean writer Jose-Maria Villagra is still quite young and probably deserves not only flattering words, but, one way or another, "Antarctica" is a story that made people talk about him.
Antarctica is a classic utopia. And, like any utopia, it is a nightmare. People are dying of happiness! What could be more hopeless? Paradise, in essence, is also the end of the world. Anyway, heaven on earth. This is a world where there is no evil, and therefore there is no good. And where love is indistinguishable from brutality.
However, is it really all that fantastic? Despite the futurological orientation, the main idea of this story continues the theme that, in fact, the entire world culture is devoted to: everything around is not what it seems. Everything around us only seems to us. And this applies to the real world to a much greater extent than to the fictional one.
The characters in this book ask themselves a question that has been driving people crazy since the days of Plato and Aristotle. Why does life only seem to us? With this question begins the flight from the unreality of being.
Spanish. General course of grammar, vocabulary and conversational practice. Advanced Stage 2nd Ed., Is
Marina Vladimirovna Larionova Educational literature Bachelor. academic courseThe book is a continuation of the book [email protected] hoy. Nivel B1. Spanish with elements of business communication for advanced students” by M. V. Larionova, N. I. Tsareva and A. Gonzalez-Fernandez. The textbook will help you understand the intricacies of using Spanish words, teach you how to use them correctly in various communication situations, introduce you to the peculiarities of the grammatical style of the language, and also improve the art of speaking.
Diverse and captivating texts will provide an opportunity to get in touch with modern Spanish and Latin American literature, which gave the world wonderful writers and poets. The textbook is the third of four books under the title [email protected] hoy, and is addressed to students of language and non-linguistic universities, foreign language courses, a wide range of people interested in the culture of Spanish-speaking countries and who have mastered the basics of normative Spanish grammar.
About literature and culture of the New World
Valery Zemskov Linguistics Russian PropylaeaThe book of the well-known literary critic and culturologist, professor, doctor of philological sciences Valery Zemskov, the founder of the Russian school of humanitarian interdisciplinary Latin American studies, publishes so far the only monographic essay in Russian literary criticism on the work of the classic of the 20th century, Nobel Prize winner, Colombian writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez.
Further, the history of culture and literature of the "Other World" (the expression of Christopher Columbus) - Latin America from the origins - "Discovery" and "Conquista", chronicles of the 16th century is recreated. , Creole baroque of the 17th century. (Juana Ines de la Cruz and others) to Latin American literature of the 19th-21st centuries.
- Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Jose Hernandez, Jose Marti, Ruben Dario and the famous "new" Latin American novel (Alejo Carpentier, Jorge Luis Borges, etc.). The theoretical chapters explore the specifics of cultural genesis in Latin America, which took place on the basis of intercivilizational interaction, the originality of Latin American cultural creation, the role of the phenomenon of "holiday", carnival in this process, a special type of Latin American creative personality.
As a result, it is shown that in Latin America, literature, endowed with a creative innovative role, created the cultural consciousness of a new civilizational and cultural community, its own special world. The book is intended for literary critics, culturologists, historians, philosophers, as well as the general reader.
Gone towards the sea. WH Project Mystery
Alexey Rostovtsev historical literature MissingWe bring to your attention an audiobook based on the works of Alexei Rostovtsev (1934–2013), a retired colonel who served in Soviet intelligence for a quarter of a century, sixteen of them abroad, a writer, author of many books and publications, a member of the Writers' Union of Russia.
“GONE TO THE SEA” On the night of August 31 to September 1, 1983, the death of a South Korean Boeing over the Sea of Japan brought the world to the brink of disaster. All Western newspapers shouted about the barbarism of the Russians who shot down a peaceful plane. For many years, French air crash specialist Michel Brun led an independent investigation into the circumstances of the incident.
Aleksey Rostovtsev laid the sensational conclusions of this investigation and Brun's argumentation at the basis of his story. "MYSTERY OF PROJECT WH" In one of the deep canyons of the Latin American country of Aurica, forgotten by God and people, the sworn enemies of mankind have built a top-secret facility where weapons are being developed to ensure their owners dominance over the world.
Most of the stories could grace any anthology; in the best, the writer reaches Faulkner's heights. Valery Dashevsky is published in the USA and Israel. Time will tell whether he will become a classic, but before us, undoubtedly, is a master of modern prose, writing in Russian.
