Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION federal state budgetary educational institution of higher education "Moscow State Linguistic University" Eurasian Linguistic Institute in Irkutsk (branch) Department of Oriental Languages Markova Daria Andreevna CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS OF THE MODERN CHINESE LANGUAGE: APPROACHES AND CRITERIA Final qualifying work of a student of group EALI7-5-93 Direction of preparation: 04/45/02 Linguistics Focus (profile): Languages of the Far East and Southeast Asia Scientific supervisor Ph.D., Assoc. , Professor of the Department of Oriental Languages O.M. Gottlieb ____________ “___” ______________ 20__ (signature) Head of the department: candidate of social sciences, associate professor. Kremnev Evgeniy Vladimirovich ____________ "___" ______________ 20__ (signature) Head of the graduating department: candidate of social sciences, associate professor, head of the department of oriental languages Kremnev Evgeniy Vladimirovich ____________ "___" ______________ 20__ (signature) Irkutsk 2016 Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 2 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….…………….…. 4 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE RESEARCH OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE ……………. 9 1.1. Forms of systematization of knowledge………………………………………… 9 1.2. Classifications in the context of the history of science methodology………………. 11 1.3. General concept of classification ………………………………………… 12 1.4. The role of the verb as a category in historical retrospect..……….. 15 1.5. General approaches to the classification of verbs (predicates)………….... 19 Conclusions on Chapter 1…………………………………………………………… 21 CHAPTER 2. SYSTEMATIZATION OF CLASSIFICATIONS VERBS OF MODERN CHINESE LANGUAGE BY PARAMETER OF APPROACHES AND CRITERIA FOR STUDYING…….………………………..................... 22 2.1.Classification of Lu Shuxiang (1942) ……..………………………….. 22 2.2. Classification by A. A. Dragunov (1952)……………………………... 22 2.3. Classification by Li Jinxi (1954)………………………………….. 25 2.4. Classification by S. E. Yakhontov (1957)……………………………………. 27 2.5. Classification by V.I. Gorelov (1982)………………………………. 34 2.6. Classification by I. S. Melnikov (1954)…………………………… 38 2.7. Classification by O. M. Gottlieb (1991)…………………………….. 55 2.8. Classification of Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao according to the ability to accept additions (1995)……………………………………………………......... ............... 65 2. 9. Classification of verbs according to Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao by transitivity (1995)…………………………………………………………… ………………... 69 2.10. Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao's classification by transitivity (1995) )…... 72 2.11. Classification by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao according to modes of action (1995)……………………………………………………….……………………………………. 72 2.12. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to transitivity and intransitivity (2001)…………………………………… 74 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 3 2.13. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to semantic meanings (2001)……………………………………………………... 75 2.14. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to the types of objects that they can attach (2001)…………. 78 2.15. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to the duration and short duration of the action (2001)………………………………………………………………………………………… …. 79 2.16. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to independence or non-independence of action (2001)………………........... 80 2.17. Classifications by O. M. Gottlieb (2004)……………………………………. 80 2.18. Classification of verbs according to Zhu Qingming (2005)………………….. 84 2.19. Classifications of verbs Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen (2008)……….. 86 2.20. Classification by Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kirimbaev according to semantic meaning and functions (2011)…………... 87 2.21. Classification of Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kirimbaev according to the ability to accept additions (2011)….................. 88 Conclusions on Chapter 2………… …………………………………………………………………… 89 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………. 92 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST…………………………………………………………. 94 Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 4 INTRODUCTION This work is devoted to the study of classifications of verbs of the modern Chinese language in terms of approaches and criteria in the history and methodology of science. The classification of Chinese verbs has been the subject of linguistic research. Ma Jianzhong, Lyu Shuxiang, A.A. proposed their classifications of verbs. Dragunov, Li Jinxi, S.E. Yakhontov, V.I. Gorelov, I.S. Melnikov, O.M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao and other authors, using various bases for systematization. In this regard, it is important to conduct a more specialized study of the issues put forward in the history and methodology of the Chinese language. The relevance of this work is determined by the significance of developing surveys for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language for the further development of grammatology. The purpose of this study is to identify the approaches and criteria that underlie the classification of verbs in modern Chinese. Achieving this goal requires solving the following tasks, determined in accordance with the stages of analysis: study the scientific works of domestic and foreign linguists devoted to onomasiological and semasiological approaches, the theory of valency and semantic syntax; clarify the theoretical basis for the study of classifications of verbs in the modern Chinese language in methodological terms and historical retrospective; identify and describe the main classifications of Chinese verbs, establish the approaches used by the authors; Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 5 during the analysis of the above classifications, identify the grounds for the classifications of verbs in all the above classifications and the approaches used by the authors of these classifications; systematize these classifications according to approaches and criteria for studying. The object of study of this work is the classification of verbs of the modern Chinese language. The subject of the study is the approaches and criteria for classifying verbs of the modern Chinese language by various authors. Taking into account the specifics of the linguistic phenomena under study, the solution to the problems was carried out using a set of methods: 1) descriptive (techniques of observation, generalization, typology of the analyzed material, its quantitative representation); 2) classification analysis based on methods of component analysis and elements of content analysis; 3) modeling method using conceptual analysis techniques. The research material was descriptive grammars of domestic and foreign authors, as well as specialized works devoted to the topic of verb classification and related topics. The theoretical basis of the study was the works of domestic and foreign linguists in the field of Chinese grammar, namely: Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, V. I. Gorelova, I. S. Melnikova, O. M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Wei Yu, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmayev, as well as theoretical provisions on classification as a form of systematization scientific knowledge of A.L. Subbotin, about the valence of verbs by B. Gorchakova. The research is carried out in line with such areas of modern linguistics as onomasiological, semasiological approaches, the theory of actant division, structural, Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 6 semantic and structural-semantic syntax. The scientific novelty of the dissertation is determined by the fact that the work is the first to attempt to identify approaches and criteria, as well as systematize the currently existing classifications of verbs in the modern Chinese language. The following provisions are submitted for defense: 1. Classification is understood as an established system of knowledge, the elements of which mean ordered groups into which objects of a certain subject area are distributed based on their similarity in certain properties. Linguistic classification is created within the framework of a certain approach, follows a guiding principle and is systematized according to a number of parameters; 2. Taking into account the principles and parameters of systematization, the classifications of Chinese verbs are divided primarily from the point of view of the basic approach: morphological and syntactic. 3. Within the framework of the morphological approach, the basis for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language are modes of action and lexical structure. Classifications using this approach are present in O.M. models. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao. 4. Within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language are: valence; transitivityintransitivity; semantics (semantic syntax). Classifications using this approach are present in the models of Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, V. I. Gorelov, I. S. Melnikov, O. M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Weiyu, Gu Hua, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmayev. 5. Analysis of examples of classifications of verbs in the modern Chinese language showed that when classifying verbs, the syntactic approach predominates (88% of the total number of classifications considered). In the framework of this approach, classifications with two bases predominate - transitivity-intransitivity and semantics, in second place are classifications based on valency. The theoretical significance of the research results lies in the fact that the systematization of verb classifications makes a certain contribution to general linguistics, the history of linguistic teachings, sinology and grammar of the modern Chinese language. The practical significance of the research results lies in the fact that the conclusions obtained during the study, as well as illustrative material, can be used in the formation of grammatical competence among students of the Chinese language, as well as in the preparation of training courses on the theoretical grammar of the Chinese language. The material presented in the text of the work can be used when writing textbooks on theoretical grammar, in compiling reference books on grammar, when conducting lectures on the theoretical grammar of the Chinese language in various educational structures (in universities, foreign language teaching centers, courses, etc.) .P.). Approbation of the work: on the topic of the dissertation, reports were made at scientific conferences within the framework of IGLU Science Week (March 2014), MSLU EALI (March 2016), IGLU Postgraduate Readings (May 2014), Postgraduate Readings (May 2015). The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in 3 publications with a total volume of 2.5 pp: Scientific publication, collection of scientific articles “Master’s Research”, Irkutsk, MSLU EALI, 2015 code (BBK 81.0 D73) D.A. Markov “On the classification of verbs in modern Chinese within the framework of semantic valence (predicate-actant valency)”, p. 348-361; Student research - 2014, IGLU Science Week, Collection of abstracts (Irkutsk, March 3-6, 2014), Electronic publication by D.A. Markova (IGLU, gr. FMKK5-01-60) “On the issue of classification of verbs in modern Chinese”, Postgraduate readings MSLU EALI 2015 collection of scientific articles (May 20-21, 2014), Electronic Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" 8th edition (MSLU EALI, gr. EALI7-4-93) D.A. Markov “On the issue of the classification of verbs in modern Chinese within the framework of semantic valence (predicate-actant valency.” The structure of the work is determined by its purpose and objectives and reflects the main stages of the research. The dissertation consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of bibliographic sources. Bibliographic the list includes 50 titles, including 12 in a foreign language. The total volume of work is 16.5 sheets of printed text. The introduction defines the general direction of the research, its goals, objectives, object, subject, characterizes the sources of empirical material and the research methods used, the relevance is justified, the scientific novelty is indicated, the theoretical significance of the development of the problem and the practical value of the work are argued, the provisions put forward for defense are formulated, the structure of the work is described. The first chapter is devoted to the theoretical aspects of the study, the concept of classification is presented and explained. Next is a historical excursion into the study of the verb, in Further attention is paid to approaches to the classification of verbs and the basis for the classification of verbs. The second chapter presents and analyzes the classifications of verbs by various authors, such as Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunova, S. E. Yakhontova, V. I. Gorelova, I. S. Melnikova, O. M. Gotliba, Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao and other authors. In conclusion, the results of the study are summarized, namely the analysis of the totality of parameters of the classifications given in the second chapter. The bibliographic list includes works of domestic and foreign authors used in the work. Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 9 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE RESEARCH OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE 1.1. Forms of systematization of knowledge Scientific knowledge is always or strives to become systematized knowledge, knowledge brought into a certain system. And although different areas of science differ quite strongly from one another both in their subjects and accepted methods, and sometimes also in the objectives of research, they all strive to appear in the form of one way or another ordered, systematized knowledge. At the same time, the form of systematization used in sciences can be different. In mathematics, for example, systematization is carried out in the form of deductive ordering, the classic example of which is geometry, as it is presented in Euclid’s Elements. Here, in a strictly defined order, in a logical sequence, all the provisions of the system are located: axioms, postulates, definitions and theorems, and each theorem is arranged in such a way that to prove it, the axioms, postulates, definitions and already proven theorems that precede it are used and only them. Thus, all provisions of the system are connected with the provisions preceding them by evidence, the means of which are strictly specified. These evidences give integrity to the entire system, and without understanding them it is impossible to understand the very essence of the system. This organization of knowledge in the form of a strict deductive system is characteristic of mathematics. Different forms of systematization of scientific knowledge differ in their structure, namely in the type of concepts functioning in them and the relationships in which the concepts are located among themselves. In the systematization of knowledge that classification carries out and which is used in descriptive natural science, so-called classification concepts function, that is, concepts that correlate the objects being studied with certain classes, or in groups. In the classification system, these concepts are among themselves in relations of subordination and subordination - those relations that are a specific subject of consideration in traditional formal logic. That is why S. Jevons called this logic the theory of classification, and A. Poincaré argued the same thing: “Formal logic is nothing more than the doctrine of properties common to any classification.” Indeed, classification groups, the ordering of which represents a classification system, are expressed in concepts that necessarily have both volume and content. The scope of concepts corresponds to those sets of objects that form classification groups; their content corresponds to those properties of objects on the basis of which objects are combined into classification groups. Thus, in the extensional aspect, classification describes a certain structural division of the area of objects under study into groups. In the intensional aspect, it carries information about the properties of these objects, about the grounds on which these objects are distributed into classification groups, and thereby about these groups themselves. Whatever the form of classification, no matter how it is depicted - whether in the form of a table or in the form of a hierarchical tree - the concepts that mean classification groups are in a relationship of subordination and subordination among themselves. This is especially clearly seen in the example of complex hierarchical classification systems, consisting of a large number of classification groups of various levels, or ranks. The foundation of such a hierarchical system is a set of individual objects, and its top is the most general classification group. At different levels of the hierarchy between the base and the top are different classification groups, each of which is directly included in one and only one more general classification group and in turn directly contains the less general classification groups included in it. Accordingly, the concepts meaning these classification groups, Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 11 are correlated in terms of the degree of generality and are in a relationship of subordination and subordination. Inference in such a system is carried out according to the rules of syllogism. 1. 2. Classification in the context of the history of scientific methodology First of all, it should be said that successes in all these endeavors today seem to be very modest. Against this background, the programmatic statements of individual enthusiasts of the classification movement and the new science that they want to create - classiology - sound even more harsh and categorical against this background. We are talking about finding reliable and solid rules for constructing classifications, so to speak, an algorithm for obtaining classifications. Here is a passage from one of these methodologists: “The classification problem is a crisis in the art of classification. Improving classification as an art is within the “competence” of evolution. We must “invent” classification as a set of procedures carried out according to the rules of science. It is possible that such a classification will be very different from what is given to us by nature, just as a technical device that embodies the “idea” of nature differs greatly from the bearer of this idea.” V.L. Kozhara, to whom these words belong, motivates his position with the following considerations. It is very unpleasant that the quality of the classifications we create is not revealed immediately, not immediately after their construction, but over a period of time, often very long, measured in the lives of entire generations. And therefore it is necessary “to be able to a priori assess the quality of the classification, that is, to judge its effectiveness before using it.” He believes that one must learn to build classifications with predetermined qualities, master the procedure for creating classifications that are obviously satisfactory for performing given functions. This is what classiology should do. The rules of the scientific method help in constructing a study, rather than predetermining its course. In particular, this is precisely the role played by formal logic “as the doctrine of properties common to any classification” in the construction of classifications. Creative scientific research, which includes the creation of a classification, is to a large extent an art, and art cannot be too strictly regulated by a system of rules. In creativity, personal qualities always play a significant role - intelligence, talent, imagination, the intuition of a scientist, that freedom of thought, without which it is impossible to either discover or create something truly new. At the same time, one cannot fail to take into account that different areas of science differ sufficiently from one another so that the same general rules are applied to them with equal success. This also applies to methods of constructing classifications. Evolutionary classification in petrology cannot be analogous to biological phylogenetic taxonomies, just as classifications in geobotany cannot be based on the latter. Rozova rightly points out this circumstance: “classification theory cannot be built as a theoretical support for individual classification algorithms.” It is impossible, because the tasks associated with the classification problem ultimately come down to the need to create a theory of classified objects, their solution presupposes a certain theoretical concept, and success in constructing a classification directly depends on success in developing the latter. Therefore, it is difficult to expect that one universal method will be found for compiling classifications, which could be specified by certain rules suitable for all possible cases of classification. 1. 3. General concept of classification The word “classification” comes from two Latin words “classis” (rank) and “facere” (to do). In the scientific literature, this word is used in at least two different meanings: as the name of an already established classification system and as a designation of the process of its creation and construction. Its use in these two meanings has been established in our speech and, generally speaking, does not lead to any confusion, since in each specific case it is always easy to understand from the context, what meaning is meant. And yet, since we are talking about terminology, which should always be unambiguous, it is advisable to use the word “classification” in the first meaning, and the process of creating and constructing a classification is called the word “classification”. The word “classification” is used ambiguously. Sometimes this word is used to describe the procedure for using an existing classification: establishing which classification group of the existing classification a particular object of interest to us should be assigned to. However, this is not a classification procedure, but a determination procedure, and it should be called that. At the same time, the concept of “classification” can be given different meanings: very broad and narrower, special. Thus, J. St. Mill noted that simply giving things common names, the act of naming them already carries out classification. Any name that signifies any property, by this very act, divides all things into two classes: those that possess this property and those that do not possess it. “And such a division will be a division not only of things that actually exist or are known to exist, but also of all those that can subsequently be discovered or even that can be imagined,” wrote Mill. He immediately explains that in this kind of classification, the grouping of objects and their distribution into classes is only an accidental consequence of the use of names used for a different purpose: simply to designate certain qualities of these objects. Whereas in that system which is properly and generally regarded as classification, the grouping and distribution of objects is the chief object, and the name a secondary object; it does not control the first, more important process, but is consciously placed in a position subordinate to it. To this completely fair explanation of Mill, it is worth adding that the content of the classification is not only the distribution of the objects under study into different groups, but also a certain order of these groups, uniting them into unified system. And the latter cannot be achieved by the mere act of verbal designation. The classification is designed to solve two main problems: firstly, to present all objects of this subject area in a reliable and convenient form for viewing and recognition; secondly, contain as much essential information about them as possible. At the same time, classification acts not simply as a statement of already achieved knowledge, but performs an important methodological function: by systematizing a certain subject area, it at the same time sets the general direction for its further targeted research and can provoke the creation of new scientific disciplines. Although individual classification procedures can be found in almost all areas of knowledge, classification is not used as the main form of systematization in all areas of science. In some sciences, classification plays an important role, and there we find it in a developed, developed form; in other sciences the role of classification is secondary; and in some it is practically not needed. However, this applies not only to classification. Deductive procedures are also constantly encountered in a wide variety of scientific reasoning. However, not all knowledge fits into a strict deductive axiomatic system, examples of which are provided by mathematics. And in a number of sciences (especially the humanities), the parametric systematization so characteristic of mathematized natural science is not applicable, since their objects cannot be measured and the corresponding concepts are not connected by mathematical relations. Thus, classification is an independent system of knowledge, always existing within the framework of a particular science in a broader context of knowledge, next to another kind of knowledge that works for classification in the same way as it works for it. The classification always reflects the current state of knowledge, and a change in the content of this knowledge leads to changes in the classification itself. It changes as a result of expanding information about classified objects - the discovery of new, previously unknown objects, their properties or their groups, or new connections between already known ones; as a result of changes in the content of the knowledge context in which the classifications are located; finally, as a result of deepening or changing those theoretical concepts from which classifications derive their origins. So, by classification we will understand an established system of knowledge, the concepts of which mean ordered groups into which objects of a certain subject area are distributed based on their similarity in certain properties, and therefore, any classification is created within the framework of a certain approach and has some basis (the principle on which it is built). 1. 4. The role of the verb as a category in historical retrospect The verb is one of the most important and significant parts of speech and constantly attracts the attention of linguists. Traditionally, a verb is understood as a part of speech that denotes an action and expresses it in the forms of aspect, voice, mood, tense and person. P. A. Lekant draws attention to the fact that “when they say that a verb denotes an action, they mean not only mechanical movement (walks, runs), but also a state (sleeps, rejoices), manifestation of a sign (turns white), change sign (turns yellow), attitude towards someone or something (respects, loves), etc. P." . As Z. Novozhenova notes, already for the “classical” period of the development of Russian syntax of the 18th – 19th centuries, the beginning of the 20th century. the evaluation of the predicate verb as an indispensable feature of a sentence is characteristic (N. Kurganov, A. A. Barsov, N. Koshansky, I. Ornatovsky. A. Kh. Vostokov, I. I. Davidov, N. I. Grech, F. I. Buslaev, A. A. Potebnya, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, A. M. Peshkovsky). Linguists such as E. Kurylovich, Czech linguists R. Mrazek, F. Danesh, E. Krizkova consider only verbal sentences as part of the grammatical system. The main emphasis is on the dominant position of the predicate verb in the formal grammatical sense, the semantic properties of verbs and the role of these properties in the formation of sentences, incomplete verbs are not taken into account are considered along with full-valued ones, since their role in expressing grammatical features of predicativity is similar (cf. He sings well. It was good in the forest). A. M. Peshkovsky (1878 - 1933), author of the book “Russian syntax in scientific coverage” (1st edition in 1914), relies on the teachings of A. A. Potebnya and F. F. Fortunatov and in his teaching about In Russian syntax, he combines the semantic side of linguistic phenomena, typical of the teachings of A. A. Potebnya, with the formalism” characteristic of F. F. Fortunatov. He sees the main role of the verb in the name of the action. About the verb and its ability to denote action, he writes: “We said that the verb denotes action. But only living beings can “act”; all other objects do not “act”, but only move. Living beings “act” because they move of their own free will. And this means that in the verb, since it depicts an action, there must also be a shade of will, intentionality. And indeed, every verb has this shade, but it is even more difficult to catch. In such verbs, for example, died, was born, fell ill, caught a cold, fell, hurt, etc., we are unlikely to notice “intentional” actions. The school formula is funny to us, what did you do? - Died. In fact, this formula is grammatically flawless. The whole point here is that the material part of these verbs expresses something directly opposite to intentionality, something completely independent of our will. Considering the connotation of intentionality in such verbs is the same as considering how much a train's departure would slow down if someone at the station grabbed onto the last car and pulled the train back. But that this shade of conscious activity is present in every verb is best seen from those cases when we need to present inanimate, inanimate objects as living ones, to revive them. It turns out that the verb is always more suitable for this than any other part of speech.” . L. V. Shcherba sees the main meaning of the verb in the action, and not in the state, when he writes: “In the category of verbs, the main meaning, of course, is only the action, and not the state at all, as was said in the old grammars. This problem appears to have arisen from the understanding of "parts of speech" as a classification rubric for lexical meanings. ... It is clear that the issue is not about the meaning of the words included in a given category, but about the meaning of the category under which certain words are subsumed. In this case, it is obvious that when we say the patient is lying on the bed or the berry is turning red in the grass, we imagine this lying and redness not as states, but as actions.” Characterizing the verb, L. V. Shcherba draws attention to the general formal characteristics of words that fall under this category, namely, their changes in persons, numbers, tenses, moods, types and other categories. A. A. Shakhmatov considers the main meaning for a verb to be the name of the active feature and emphasizes the inextricable connection of the verb with the word denoting the producer of the action. He considers this important in order to distinguish a verb from a verbal noun, which names an active feature, abstracted from its producer. Drawing attention to the difference between the words shoot and shot, walk and walking, he emphasizes that “it is true that with the word walk we may not definitely imagine one or another producer of this action, but with some tension it will evoke in us an idea of either a person , or about an animal, or about a machine - the producers of such an action; Of course, the words shot, walking can evoke ideas about the phrases hunter’s shot, clock walking, but the difference with the words walk, shoot is that they do not evoke the idea of similar phrases with the name of the producer of the action omitted.” Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 18 S. D. Katsnelson considers the verb (predicate) to be the center of the sentence. Comparing a predicate with an attribute, the purpose of which is to actualize the concept of an object, he draws attention to the fact that the predicate “... is organically connected with the sentence, which is unthinkable without it. To remove a predicate from a proposition is to remove its vital nerve. A predicate is irremovable without consequences for the entire proposition, while an attribute can be replaced by another without much damage." Some researchers, considering the verb to be the most important organizing element of a sentence, do not understand verbality as an obligatory quality of sentences. A representative of this direction is, for example, P. A. Lekant. These researchers also recognize other, non-verbal types of sentences - nominal two-part, genitive, nominative, etc. Within the framework of this view, the idea is developed that the verb is not only obligatory, but also the defining component of the sentence. As Z. Novozhenova writes, “the verb determines not only the number of nominal members (components) of the sentence, but also their semantic (semantic) content (role) in the sentence... a predicate is placed in the center of the sentence structure - a predicate-verb, specifying a certain number of dependent from it are members called actants, arguments, complements, participants, terms and simply nominal components of a sentence. The structure of a sentence-statement in such studies appears as a combination of a predicate-verb and its actant frame (L. Tenier, F. Danesh, T. P. Lomtev). Since the 60s In the twentieth century, in connection with the emergence and development of the theory of valency and semantic syntax, the attention of linguists is concentrated precisely on the predicate (verb), which is assigned the role of the structural center of the sentence, and the sentence is understood as a reflection of a situation with a certain set of participants. The verb comes to the fore and is considered as the structural center of the sentence, which opens up other “empty spaces” that need to be filled. The set and number of such “empty spaces” depends on the type of situation denoted by the verb, and it can be assumed that the number of “empty spaces” depends on the semantic type of the predicate and its lexical meaning. In linguistics, the verb is studied from different points of view. The grammatical categories of the verb (voice, aspect, transitivity) are studied, and certain lexical-semantic groups are analyzed from the point of view of cognitive, semantic-structural, functional, formal (verb conjugation), semantic (meaning, ideographic description). 1. 5. General approaches to the classification of verbs (predicates) 1. The morphological approach within linguistics is associated with the structure of the word. The classifications made from the point of view of the morphological approach are based on the following principles (foundations): - modes of action The section limited by the framework of morphology in the Chinese language is expanded to the category of modes of action. Modes of action are understood as semantic, word-formative and morphological categories of verbs. These discharges can reveal signs of ways of carrying out an action. - lexical structure (dividing verbs into simple, complex, compound) 2. The syntactic approach within linguistics involves the construction of various syntactic models based on valence, transitivity - intransitivity, and also affects semantic syntax. Classifications made using the syntactic approach usually have the following bases: - valency (actant division theory) Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 20 Valence - implied by the meaning of a word or an implicit indication of the need for completion contained in it his words of certain types in a sentence. Valence from this point of view is a sign not of all full-valued words, but only of those that themselves give a feeling of incompleteness of the statement and require completion in the statement; for us these are verbs. When using the term valency in the following, we mean the valence of verbs. - transitivity-intransitivity The Dictionary of Linguistic Terms by D. E. Rosenthal defines transitive verbs as verbs with the meaning of an action that is directed to an object, changes or produces this object - the object of the action, expressed in the accusative case without a preposition. The case form is a sign of an addition; in relation to the Chinese language, the signs of an addition are its position in a sentence and a preposition. A. A. Dragunov notes that in the Chinese language it is advisable to consider such an addition as direct, which can appear not only after the verb, but also before it (with the preposition 把), and which corresponds to the subject in the passive construction; -semantics (semantic syntax) One of the basic principles used to construct a semantic classification of verbal vocabulary is the traditional opposition of action verbs to state verbs. The study of lexical-semantic groups of verbs, a description of the structure and semantics of a sentence with verbs of a selected semantic group, or a semantic-stylistic characteristic of a selected lexical-semantic group of verbs also belong to the field of semantic syntax. In Sinology there are a large number of different classifications of verbs. They are mainly made on the basis of the syntactic functions of verbs and lexical compatibility. Such classifications do not pay enough attention to the morphological features of verbs. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 21 Conclusions on Chapter 1 In the first chapter, the term “classification” was defined (Classification is an established system of knowledge, the concepts of which mean ordered groups into which objects of a certain subject area are distributed based on their similarity in certain properties, and therefore, any classification is created within the framework of a certain approach and has some basis (the principle on which it is built), it is concluded that any classification should be based on certain principles (foundations classification) and any classification is built within a certain approach. In linguistics, the verb is studied from different points of view. The grammatical categories of the verb (voice, aspect, transitivity) are studied, and certain lexical-semantic groups are analyzed from the point of view of cognitive, semantic-structural, functional, formal (verb conjugation), semantic (meaning, ideographic description). In this regard, the following approaches for classifying verbs are given: -morphological approach; - syntactic approach. Within the framework of the morphological approach, the following bases for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language were identified: - modes of action; - lexical structure. Within the framework of the syntactic approach, the following bases for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language were identified: -valency; - transitivity-intransitivity; -semantics (semantic syntax). Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 22 CHAPTER 2. SYSTEMATIZATION OF CLASSIFICATIONS OF VERBS OF THE MODERN CHINESE LANGUAGE ACCORDING TO THE PARAMETER OF APPROACHES AND STUDY CRITERIA 2. 1. Classification of Lu Shuxiang (1942) Lu Shuxiang divided the verbs for the following classes : 1) actions: 来 - come，去 - leave, 飞 - fly，跳- jump, 说 - talk，笑- laugh，吃 - eat，喝 - drink; 2) experiences: 想- think，忆 - remember， 爱- love，恨hate，怨- grumble，悔 - repent，感激 - be touched，害怕 - afraid; 3) inactive actions: 生 - to be born， 死 - to die，睡 - to sleep， 等候 - to wait，盼望 - to hope， 忍耐 - to endure，遗失 - to lose; 4) non-actions: 为- to do, become，是- to be, to appear，有to have, to exist, to happen, 蕪 - not to have, to be absent, not to happen 似 to be similar，纇 - to become similar，值 - to cost (for example, 值一 千 cost one thousand)，加 - add (for example, 二加二 add two to two). In his classification, Lu Shuxiang points to the differentiation of verbal vocabulary into four categories - verbs of action, experience, inactive actions and non-action verbs. This classification is carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach. It is based on the semantics of verbs; the entire layer of verbal vocabulary is represented by four lexical-semantic groups. 2. 2. Classification A.A. Dragunov (1952) Within the category of the verb, there is a relatively small, but both in meaning and grammatically very clearly defined group of verbs, which do not express actions and, in relation to which, naturally, the question: “What does the subject do?” is not applicable. This group includes: a) verbs of thinking and feeling: 知道，认得 - to know, 认识 to be familiar with, 懂，明白 - to understand, 思量 - to believe, 信 - to believe, 害怕 to be afraid, 羞 - to be ashamed, 爱 - to love, etc. ; b) state verbs: 疼- hurts; c) modal verbs 能 - to be able，愿意 - to desire； d) semi-nominal verbs: 在- to be available， 姓- to be named，象 - to be similar； Since such verbs do not express actions, they do not allow quantitative changes and therefore are little compatible with verbs counting words. Verbs of this group are characterized by the fact that they do not allow qualitatively-resulting changes characteristic of action verbs, and therefore do not form forms of potential mood. Unlike non-action verbs, action verbs are characterized primarily by the fact that they allow various kinds of quantitative changes. These changes are carried out by doubling the verb root or by a system of verb counting words. They also allow qualitative changes, and accordingly form forms of “potential inclination”. Action verbs, both in meaning and grammatically, fall into two main categories - transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The former are characterized by the fact that they require a direct object after themselves, while the latter do not require this. Then some relatively small categories are distinguished: verbs of direction of movement, verbs of giving and taking away, verbs of speaking, feeling and thinking. Verbs of direction of movement (which are among the intransitive verbs) are characterized by a number of different features: they can act as morphemes - modifiers as with verbs of movement, for example. 拿来 - Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 24 bring, and with verbs with other semantics, for example. 想来 - remember; are not formalized by verbal suffixes 着. Within transitive verbs, in turn, there is a relatively small but important group of verbs of giving and taking away (corresponding to Li Jinxi’s verbs of transfer), which, due to their lexical content, allow a double object after them - indirect and direct, which constitutes their grammatical feature. For example, 给- give ，送 - send，买 - buy. A special group in the Chinese language consists of the so-called verbs of speaking, feeling and thinking. Grammatically, these verbs are characterized by the fact that they can have an addition expressed by a whole sentence. A special place within the category of verb is occupied by those verbs that can be used in two functions - significant and auxiliary, in the role of a verb - preposition. In his classification, A. A. Dragunov distinguishes verbs of action and non-action. He divides action verbs in turn into transitive and intransitive, then provides a semantic description of transitive and intransitive verbs. Among the transitive ones, he distinguishes the verbs of giving and taking away, verbs of speaking, feeling and thinking. Among the intransitive are verbs of direction of movement. This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach and has two bases, the first of which is transitivity-intransitivity, the second is semantics. Speaking about the categories of transitive verbs, A. A. Dragunov moves to the second basis of classification. 2. 3. Classification by Li Jinxi (1954) Li Jinxi divides all verbs of the Chinese language into four large groups: 1) transitive verbs (外动词, verbatim verbs of external action), Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Agency Book-Service" 25 2) intransitive verbs (内动词, verbatim verbs of internal action), 3) copular verbs (同动词, verbatim verbs of identity), 4) auxiliary verbs (助动词). Transitive verbs have an object; intransitive verbs have no object. In addition to real connectives and verbs close to them, Li Jinxi also includes adjectives in the function of a predicate among copular verbs. He includes modal verbs, verbs with a passive meaning, verbs 来 - to come, 去 - to leave in their auxiliary meaning, as well as some types of temporary affixes and word-forming elements. Each of the four main groups, in turn, is divided into subgroups. Transitive verbs, according to Li Jinxi, include the following: 1) verbs denoting an active influence on an object, for example: 取take, 吃 - eat, 做 - do; 2) verbs denoting “ways of cognition”, e.g.: 看 – look, 想 – think，知道 – know； 3) verbs denoting transmission, e.g. 送- give, 夺- take away，问- ask. Verbs in this group require two objects. 4) verbs denoting “interference in other people’s affairs”, for example: 使to force, to lead to the fact that，请- to ask，允许- to allow, 禁止to prohibit； 5) verbs with the meaning of naming, for example. : 认 - count, acknowledge， 叫 - name，当 - count. 6) verbs denoting transformation, for example. 改- change，化 - transform， 分- divide，合- connect. 7) verbs denoting feelings (and expression of feelings), for example: 爱 love，佩服 - respect，笑 - laugh，骂 - scold. Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 26 The verbs of the last four groups, according to Li Jin-Xi, in addition to the complement, also require 补足语- an additional member（from the verb 补足to complete, supplement） 8) verbs, expressing attitude; Only the verb 有- to have belongs to this group, its antonyms 没有，蕪; the latter occurs only as a borrowing from Wenyan. These verbs are approaching copulas. Li Jin-Xi considers the following to be intransitive verbs: 1) ordinary intransitive verbs, for example. 走- go，坐- sit，来 come，睡 - sleep; 2) intransitive verbs denoting actions associated with any objects, for example. 在- to be, 坐- to sit，走- to go，进- to enter. These verbs can be followed by nouns; however, Li Jin-Xi correctly views these nouns not as simple complements, but as complements “having the character of circumstances” (denoting the place of action), and the verbs themselves as intransitive; 3) verbs with the meaning of “own change or appearance”, for example: 变 - transform，成 - become，现出 - appear. These verbs must have 补足语; 4) verbs denoting feelings (and external expression of feelings), for example: 笑 - laugh，哭 - cry，欢喜 - rejoice，害怕 - afraid. These verbs can be used as transitive verbs; 5) verbs denoting existence: 有 - to exist and 在 - to exist. These verbs can also have the addition “having the nature of circumstances”; on the other hand, they approach copular verbs. In his classification, Li Jinxi divides verbs into transitive and intransitive and then classifies transitive and intransitive verbs, while distinguishing copular and auxiliary verbs into a separate class. He divides transitive verbs into: 1) verbs denoting an active influence on an object; 2) verbs denoting “ways of knowing”； 3) verbs denoting transmission; 4) verbs denoting “interference in other people’s affairs; 5) verbs with the meaning of naming; 6) verbs denoting transformation; 7) verbs denoting feelings (and expression of feelings; 8) verbs expressing attitude, intransitive - into: 1) ordinary intransitive verbs; 2) intransitive verbs denoting actions associated with any objects; 3) verbs with the meaning of “own change or appearance”; 4) verbs denoting feelings (and external expression of feelings); 5) verbs denoting existence: 有 - to exist and 在 - to exist. This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, but it does not have a single basis. Two bases are distinguished: transitivity-intransitivity and semantics. Li Jinxi distinguishes the first two classes of verbs on the basis of transitivity - intransitivity, and the second two - on the basis of semantics. Continuing further consideration of transitive and intransitive verbs, Li Jinxi classifies them, highlighting lexical-semantic groups, which also implies semantics as the basis for continuing the classification. 2. 4. Classification by S. E. Yakhontov (1957) 1. Transitive verbs Transitive verbs are characterized by the fact that they require a direct object. As we have already seen above, it is advisable to consider a direct object in the Chinese language to be an addition that can appear not only after the verb, but also before it (with the preposition 把), and which corresponds to the subject in the passive construction. Thus, a sentence, the predicate of which is a transitive verb, can be constructed in the following three ways: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 28 1) Subject - Verb - Direct object (subject) (object) 2) Subject - 把 - Direct object - Verb (subject) " (object) 3) Subject - 被 - Indirect object - Verb (object) (subject) We can consider a verb that can be part of all three constructions as transitive. For example, verb 打beat" is transitive, since we can say: 1) 他打了我一顿。- He beat me. 2) 他把我打了一顿。- He beat me. 3) 我被他打了一顿。- I was beaten by him. Transitive verbs denote actions as a result of which their object to some extent changes its state, quality, position in space, belonging to a certain person, etc., or those as a result of which the object is created or destroyed; they correspond to verbs of active influence on an object,” according to the classification of Li Jin-hsi. In addition, transitive verbs have a number of other, less important features that distinguish them from intransitive verbs; for example, they cannot be used as modifiers of effective verbs. So , a transitive verb in Chinese is characterized primarily by the fact that it requires a direct object after it. This object can only be omitted in incomplete sentences when it is clearly indicated in the context. In particular, the omission of an object occurs when two or more following one another verbs denote actions aimed at the same object; in this case, the complement is placed only after the first verb, and is omitted after the rest. The complement in imperative sentences is very often omitted. There is also no addition after the transitive verb if the name of the object of the action is at the beginning of the sentence as a thematic subject, for example: 这种工作过去还做得很 不够。- This work was not carried out sufficiently in the past (Mao Tse-tung, II, 678). Objects whose meaning follows naturally from the meaning of the verb are called empty objects. For example, in the meaning “He writes” (writes in general, that is, he is busy writing), the expression 他写字 (lit. He writes written signs) is used. 1.1.Verbs of giving and taking away It is known that in the Chinese language there are a number of verbs that require two informal additions at the same time: indirect (the name of a person) and direct (the name of an object or substance); in this case, the direct object follows the indirect one. Most of these verbs denote various shades of the concepts of giving (something to someone) and taking (something from someone). These include: 给- give, 送 - give, 还- return, 交 - pay, 借- lend, 组-rent, etc. This group also includes a small number of verbs with a more abstract meaning, such as 教- teach, teach, 要 - demand (from or from someone), 问 - ask and some others. The meanings of these verbs are also to some extent related to the concepts of “give and take.” The direct object of these verbs is placed with its own definitions after the indirect one, or (much less often and only with verbs of giving) it is placed before the verb and introduced by the preposition 把, and the indirect object with its own definitions is located directly after the verb, for example 赵主任老问我意见。- Chief Zhao always asks me my opinion (Zhou Li - Bo, I, 253) 1.2.Verbs with a forced meaning Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" 30 The verbs of this group denote such actions that encourage the commission of other actions, help or hinder the implementation of these actions, or at least allow, allow the commission of these actions. In the future, we will call all these numerous shades coercive meaning. Verbs with a forced meaning include: 请 - ask to do something, 要 - demand that someone do something, 劝 - advise, persuade, 派 - send to do something, etc. Verbs with a forced meaning control the indirect object , denoting a person, and an additional member expressed by an action verb and denoting the action of a person indicated by an indirect object. A person, designated by an indirect addition to a verb with a compulsory meaning, under the influence of the action expressed by this verb, himself performs the action indicated by the additional member. It is thus the object of one action and the subject of another. 1.3.Verbs of thought, feeling, speech The verbs included in this group are united by one common feature: they can all have an addition, expressed by a whole sentence that does not receive any form of conjunction. This property is possessed by verbs that denote: a) types of mental activity, b) the activity of the senses, c) various emotions, d) speech, as well as in general the external expression of an attitude towards any fact. These are the verbs: 知道 - to know, 想 to think, 懂 - to understand, 记得 - to remember, 信 - to believe, 觉得 - to feel, 看 to look, 听 - to listen, 怕 - to be afraid, 恨 - to hate, to be angry at something. The addition to the verbs of thought, feeling and speech, no matter how it is expressed - a word or a sentence, - does not denote an object that changes under the influence of an action, but an object or phenomenon that is reflected in the consciousness of the subject of the action or evokes some feelings in him. This addition is indirect; as a rule, it does not allow either a construction with 把 or a construction with 被, but at the same time it can be omitted if it is not necessary. Thus, verbs of thought, feeling, and speech are indirectly transitive (i.e., governing an indirect rather than a direct object). 1.4. Verbs with a passive meaning In the Chinese language there are several verbs that, by their very semantics, have a passive character: these verbs mean not that the person designated by the subject performs some action, but that this person is subject to some kind of influence at him or experiences some kind of sensation. These include verbs: 挨 - to undergo, endure, 受 - to receive, undergo, 害 - to suffer from, to experience (unpleasant feeling), 忍 to endure, 耐 - to withstand, etc. The addition to verbs with a passive meaning can be classified as the same type, as well as the addition to verbs of thought, feeling and speech; o to denotes an object or phenomenon to which the person designated by the subject is exposed. The object of passive verbs can be expressed either as a noun or (more often) as a verb or adjective. The verb and adjective, used as additions to verbs with a passive meaning, lose their usual properties: they do not receive any design usually characteristic of them, the verb loses the ability to accept additions and modifiers, the adjective loses its ability to be combined with adverbs denoting the degree of quality. 2. Intransitive verbs Verbs with a mandatory meaning, verbs of thought, feeling and speech and verbs with a passive meaning cannot have a direct object, but control an indirect object without a preposition; they can be considered indirectly transitive. Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 32 In addition to them, in the Chinese language there are real intransitive verbs in which the addition is either completely impossible, or the meaning does not differ from the adverbial adverb. Intransitive verbs are: 坐 - sit, 走 - go, 跳 - jump, 飞 - fly, 流 - flow 住 - live (somewhere), 睡 - sleep, 生 - born, 变 - change, 冻 - freeze, 继续 continue, etc. Intransitive verbs also include the verbs of direction of movement described by A. A. Dragunov. All verbs of direction of movement have, in addition to the significant, also auxiliary meanings. So, in most cases, the addition or adverbial adverb of place with intransitive verbs denotes either the place along which the subject of the action moves (or in which he is located), or the final point of movement. 2.1. Linking verbs Among intransitive verbs, a special place is occupied by linking verbs, which always have after them an additional member expressed by a name (noun or pronoun). Linking verbs include: 当作 to be, to serve, 成 - to become, 属于 - to number, to belong to, 等于 - to be equal to, to be the same as, 像 - to seem, to be similar to, 算 - to be considered, 分 - to be subdivided into, 姓 - to be by surname, 叫 - to be called, to bear a name, etc. Unlike the real copula 是, linking verbs are not service elements. Each of them retains its own significant meaning. Some linking verbs indicate the temporary nature of the connection between the subject predicate (for example, 当 and 作), others mean that the person or object is not actually what the nominal part of the predicate denotes, but only seems to be considered something, equated to something, etc. (for example, 像, 算, 等于). Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 33 If the copula 是 is not a verb either in its origin or in its grammatical properties, then linking verbs have a number of ordinary verbal properties. They can be combined with modal verbs, have an indirect object or adverbial clause with a preposition, and many of them change tenses. With linking verbs, unlike other intransitive verbs, the presence of a nominal part of the predicate is mandatory; the nominal part may be omitted only if it can be easily understood from the context. 2.2. Modal verbs Modal verbs occupy a very special place among the verbs of the Chinese language. Modal verbs express the attitude of the subject of an action to the action itself: the ability to perform this action, the need or desire to perform it, etc. Therefore, a modal verb in a sentence is always combined with another verb, forming together with it one complex predicate; On its own, without another verb, a modal verb cannot be the predicate of a complete sentence; this is the most important difference between modal verbs and all other verbs in the Chinese language. A characteristic feature of modal verbs is also their complete morphological invariability. Modal verbs never form any forms, neither synthetic nor analytical. This is explained by the fact that they all belong to non-action verbs. Modal verbs can be divided according to their meaning into those expressing possibility, obligation and desire; however, some modal verbs are difficult to classify with certainty into any of these groups, since this classification itself is based only on the semantics of individual words, and not on any specific grammatical features. The meanings of individual modal verbs are generally well known and described in detail in the literature. S. E. Yakhontov divides verbs into three classes: transitive and non-transitive. Among the transitive verbs, he identifies the following lexical-semantic fields: verbs of giving and taking away, verbs with a forced meaning, verbs of thought, feeling, speech, verbs with a passive meaning ; Among intransitive verbs, he distinguishes verbs - connectives and modal verbs. The classification is carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach. The first basis is transitivity-intransitivity. The second basis is semantics, because S. E. Yakhontov divides transitive and intransitive verbs into lexical-semantic groups for further classification. 2. 5. Classification by V.I. Gorelov (1982) Verbs in the Chinese language are divided into full-valued verbs and auxiliary verbs. Full verbs can independently perform the function of a simple predicate. As part of a complex predicate, they express the main meaning. Full-valued verbs are divided into non-effective verbs and effective verbs. Ineffective verbs, meaning an action or state of an object, do not contain the additional meaning of effectiveness: 活 - live, 看 - watch, 坐 - sit, 休息 - rest, 批评 - criticize. Effective verbs, meaning an action or state of an object, also contain additional meanings of effectiveness. Effective verbs are divided into actually effective verbs and effectively-directed verbs. Actually, resultative verbs, being complex verbs, consist of two parts. The first part denotes action and expresses the main meaning of the verb, and the second – quality or action and expresses the additional meaning of effectiveness: 作完 - to do, 写好 - to write. Resultingly, directed verbs, being complex verbs, consist of two parts. Both parts represent actions. At the same time, the first Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 35 part means the main meaning of the verb, and the second - additional meanings of effectiveness and direction: 坐下 - sit down, 拿出 - take out. Verbs of this class, in cases where their meaning is not associated with the idea of movement, express only effectiveness: 住上 - to live, 笑开 to laugh. Auxiliary verbs usually cannot independently perform the function of a simple predicate. As part of a complex predicate, they express additional meanings. Auxiliary verbs are divided into modal, motivating, verbs indicating stages of action, and verbs indicating the direction of action. Modal verbs express the possibility, necessity, desire to perform an action. Modal verbs expressing possibility: 1) 能，能够 - be able, be able; 2) 可，可以，可能 - you can; 3) 会 - to be able, to be capable; 4) 得 - it is possible, it will be possible. Verbs of the first group usually mean subjective, physical possibility; sometimes they express an objective possibility. Verbs of the second group express an objective, legal possibility. The verb 会 means a subjective possibility arising from the skill, ability to carry out an action; sometimes he expresses an objective possibility with a connotation conveyed in Russian by the words “it may happen that...”. The verb 得 means an objective possibility with a connotation that can be conveyed in Russian by the words “get the opportunity, succeed.” Modal verbs expressing necessity: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 36 1) 应，当，该， 应当，应该， 该当 - must, must, follows, relies; 2) 得 - must, must, follows, relies; 3) 需，要，需要，需得 - necessary, necessary, necessary. Verbs of the first and second groups usually mean subjective necessity (ought). Verbs of the third group usually mean objective necessity. The verb 需 in modern Chinese is often used with the modal word 必 necessarily, without fail. Modal verbs expressing desire: 要，愿，愿意 - desire, want, expect; 想，想要 - intend, want; 肯 - agree, want, be inclined; 敢 - dare, dare, dare. Incentive verbs express an impulse to action: 使 - encourage, allow, force; 请 - ask, invite; 让 - allow, permit; 叫/教 - command, force; 迫使 - to force, force. Above are just some of the most common verbs. These verbs have varying degrees of motivation - from the weakest 请 to ask to the strongest 迫使 to force. 使 is a verb with the most general meaning of motivation. Verbs indicating the stages of an action indicate the beginning, continuation, termination of an action: 开始 - begin, become; Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 37 继续 - continue; 停止 - stop, cease. Verbs indicating the direction of action indicate movement towards the speaking person from the speaking person: 来 here - there 去 when moving to, from the speaking person 上来 here - there 上去 when moving up 下来 here - there 下去 when moving down 进来 here - there 进去 when moving inward 出来 here - there 出去 when moving outward 过来 here - there 过去 when moving through 起来 here - there 起去 when going up 回来 here - there 回去 when moving back 开来 here - there 开去 when moving to the side Auxiliary verbs of this type in in combination with full-valued verbs, the meaning of which is associated with the idea of movement, indicate the direction of action, and also express effectiveness: 拿进去 - bring in (there), 走进去 - enter (there). Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 38 These same verbs, in combination with full-meaning verbs, the meaning of which is not related to the idea of movement, express only effectiveness: 想出来 - come up, 清醒过来 - wake up. Auxiliary verbs 起来 and 下去 can also denote stages of action (the first is the beginning, the second is the continuation): 说起来 - to speak, 写下去 - to continue writing. V.I. Gorelov in his classification divides Chinese verbs into full-valued verbs and auxiliary verbs. Full-valued verbs are divided into non-effective verbs and effective verbs. Effective verbs are divided into actually effective verbs and effectively-directed verbs. Auxiliary verbs are divided into modal, motivating, verbs indicating stages of action, and verbs indicating the direction of action. Modal verbs are divided into verbs that express the possibility, necessity and desire to perform an action. This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach. The basis is the semantics of the verb, because The author divides verbs into lexical-semantic classes and groups. But in the further classification of full-valued verbs, a morphological approach is used; these verbs are classified based on the modes of action (effective - non-effective; verbs that are actually effective and verbs that are effective - directed). 2. 6. Classification of I.S. Melnikova (1983) Monovalent verbs 1) Valence group S (Ag) P1(͞cf͞R) The verbs in question are not able to appear in sentences with 把. Passive transformation is not allowed. Verbs do not combine with adverbs of degree. All verbs of this group have the ability to implement the full suffixal paradigm. Verbs accept negations 不 ，没. When implementing a configuration of this type at the level of specific sentences, the word in the function of the subjective syntaxeme can appear before and after the word in the function of the auxiliary syntaxeme. 1.1. Valence class S (AgAP) P1(͞cf͞R) This group includes monovalent verbs that denote actions that are, as a rule, only characteristic of humans; they allow agential subject syntax only with the meaning of animation. Verbs of this class have maximum diagnostic power in terms of predicting the nature of the subjective agentive syntax, unambiguously indicating a noun - a representative of the AR subclass. For example, 孩子又哭起来。 - The boy started crying again. 他着急起来。- He got excited. 1.2. Valence class S (AgA͞Р) P1(͞cf͞R) This class includes verbs denoting actions typically characteristic of representatives of the animal world. These verbs have a high diagnostic power in relation to S (Ag), allowing the possibility of constructing a question with the pronoun 什么 (that), for example. 鸟啼 - the bird chirps. 1.3. Valence class S (AgA) P1(͞cf͞R) These verbs are characterized by the fact that they denote actions characteristic of all living things (both humans and all living things), for example. 呼吸 to breathe, 死- to die. It is allowed to pose a question both with the pronoun 谁 who and with the pronoun 什么 - what. 1.4. Valence class S (Ag͞AC) P1(͞cf͞R) This group includes verbs that accept nouns in the S(A) function that denote specific, material objects. Verbs included in this class have a fairly high diagnostic power, predicting in the function S(Ag) nouns with the meaning Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 40 subclass ͞AC, for example. 华已经枯了。- The flowers have already withered. 水开了。- The water boiled. Verbs of this group allow the question to be posed only with the pronoun 什么 - what. 1.5. Valence class S (Ag͞А ͞С) P1(͞cf͞R) This class includes verbs that accept as S(Ag) nouns with the meaning of subclass A ͞ C ͞ . This subclass includes nouns that name properties, relationships, and states of objects. Verbs of this group allow the question to be posed only with the pronoun 什 么 what. For example, 战争爆发了。 - War broke out. 温度下降。 The temperature dropped. 1.6. Valence class S (AgN) P1(͞cf͞R) This class includes verbs with the widest possible range of meaning. These verbs denote actions that can be characteristic of both animate and inanimate nouns; they allow representatives of any subclasses of nouns to function as S(Ag). Such verbs allow the construction of a question with any interrogative pronoun. Verbs of the class under consideration usually name actions associated with movement or movement in space, with a change in state or being in some state, etc. For example, 变change, 跑- run, etc. 2) Valence group S (Pt) P1asp(cf) This configuration is represented by the so-called state sentences. Such sentences are sometimes also defined as “conceptual passive” sentences, which indicates a certain shade of passivity inherent in the relation to the nuclear syntax P1(cf). The configuration has a special content plan (it serves to indicate a certain state that arose as a result of a certain impact on the object, but not to indicate the action to which the object was subjected), although the plan expresses Service" 41 expressions (name + verb) coincide with the plan of expression of other configurations. Verbs of this group do not allow passive transformation and cannot be combined with adverbs of degree. The core syntaxeme is usually verbs consisting of a verbal stem plus a verbal or qualitative stem, indicating the result of an action expressed by the first stem, or verbs consisting of a verbal stem plus a preposition of direction, in which the resultative form is already expressed in the structure itself. Verbs usually only accept the negation 没. 2.1. Valence class S (Pt͞A) P1asp(cf) In the function of the subjective syntax, as a rule, representatives of the subclass of inanimate nouns act; by the way, in the position S(Pt) only a question with the pronoun 什么- what is allowed. For example, 门开着 。 -The door is open. 2.2. Valence class S (PtN) P1asp(cf) In the position of the subjective syntaxeme there is an animate noun, which, given the verbal lexemes, can never be the producer of an action, because state sentences are characterizing sentences that express the state of the object designated by the subject. By the way, in position S(Pt) a question with the pronouns 谁- who and 什么- what is allowed, for example. 打败 - to be defeated, 失败 - to be defeated. 3) Subset S (Ag) P1(͞cfR) The function of nuclear reflexive syntax can be performed by verbs characterized by the presence of a turn in the direction of the action they denote. The verbs under consideration do not represent a single whole in terms of the general meaning of reflexivity they express. The basis for combining all reflexive verbs was their ability to act as a carrier of the meaning of the nuclear reflexive syntax. The basis for assigning certain verbs to a certain group is their inherent meaning (reciprocity/reciprocity), which finds its formal expression in the ability of verbs to act as a nuclear reflexive syntax in a certain configuration. 3.1. Valence group S (AgPI) P1(͞cfR) This group includes verbs in which the producer of the action is also the subject of action. These verbs cannot appear in sentences with 把, passive transformation is excluded, they are not combined with adverbs of degree, and are capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm. Verbs accept negations 不，没. The group is represented by one valence class S (AgPI) P1(͞cfR). Verbs of this class have great diagnostic power. For example, 我已经洗好了。- I have already washed my face. 他为什么自杀？- Why did he commit suicide? 3.2. Valence group S (PI) P1(͞cfR) This group includes verbs denoting an action in which the interaction of two or more objects is assumed, each of which participates in the commission of the action and therefore can be considered as its producer. These verbs are not used in sentences with 把; passive transformation is also excluded for them. They do not combine with adverbs of degree. These verbs allow only nouns with plural meaning in position S(Ag). It can be a word denoting a certain collection of people or a noun with a plurality affix. As a rule, only constructing a question with the pronoun 谁 who is allowed. For example, 两个人就分手了。- The two parted on this. 我们并没有吵架。 - We didn’t quarrel at all. Bivalent verbs Verbs related to bivalent verbs require not only a subject complementary syntaxeme, but also a complementary syntaxeme with the meaning of objectivity. A distinctive feature of these verbs is their ability to act as a nuclear syntax in double verbal configurations. Such configurations include three syntaxes: one nuclear and two complementary (subject and object). Core syntaxes in two-place verbal configurations are characterized by a sign of correlation of action, acting as a kind of mediating link between the subject and object syntaxes. 1) Subset S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt) Verbs that can act as a nuclear syntax in configurations of this type do not represent a homogeneous group and allow further differentiation. 1.1. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt) These verbs are also defined as verbs of active influence on an object. They can be predicated in sentences with 把. Such configurations allow for the transformation of the passive; verbs have the ability to implement the full suffixal paradigm. For example, 我做这工作。- I will do this work. 王经理喝了杯茶。- Director Wang drank a glass of tea. 1.1.1. Valence class S(AgР)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt͞AC) The nuclear syntaxeme of this configuration is characterized by the use of verbs of lexical valence, in which the presence of words with the meaning of inanimateness (concreteness) in the function of the object syntaxe and with the meaning of person in the function of the subject syntaxe is required, for example . 发明- to invent, 写- to write. 1.1.2. Valence class S(AgА)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt͞AC) This group includes verbs that allow animate nouns (both persons and non-persons) in the S(Ag) function, and in position O1(Pt) only nouns of the subclass ͞AC, e.g. 喝 - drink, 唱 - sing. 1.1.3. Valence class S(AgА)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PtА) Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 44 Verbs that act as nuclear syntax in this configuration are allowed in positions O1(Pt) and S (Ag) only animate nouns, e.g. 杀 - to kill, 生 - to give birth. 1.1.4. Valence class S(AgА)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt͞А) This class consists of verbs that allow nouns with the meaning of animateness in the position S(Ag), and nouns with the meaning of inanimateness in the function O1(Pt͞), for example. 做- to do, 取消- to liquidate, etc. 1.1.5. Valence class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt͞А) This class of verbs allows almost any nouns in the function of the subject syntaxeme, and in the position of the object syntaxeme only nouns with the meaning ͞A, for example. 破坏 - to destroy, 制造 - to produce. 1.1.6. Valence class S(AgA)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PtN) These verbs allow in the position S(Ag) words with the meaning of animation, and in the function O1 - nouns of any subclasses, for example. 买 - buy, 卖 - sell. 1.1.7. Valence class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PtN) These verbs allow representatives of any subclasses of nouns to function as both complementary syntaxes. The class is made up of verbs such as 运 - to transport, 拉 - to pull, etc. 1.1.8. Valence class S(Ag͞А)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt͞А) A relatively small class, which includes verbs like 包含 - contain, contain, 充满 - flood, fill, etc. 1.1.9. Valence class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PtА) These verbs denote internal moods evoked in persons by other persons or phenomena, for example. 吓 - to frighten, 激动 - to excite. 1.2. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt) Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Agency Kniga-Service 45 This group can be represented by one valence class S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R) O1(Pt͞А/Sent). The verbs that make up this class are defined as phase verbs, characterizing various phases of the action. A distinctive feature of these verbs is that they all allow not only nouns, but also verbal-object phrases or individual verbs in the position of the objective syntax. Phasic verbs are used in constructions with the function word 把. This configuration is not capable of passive transformation (phase verbs are always placed before the main verb, which can appear in a passive form). These verbs are characterized by a limited ability to implement the suffixal paradigm. For example, 这些人在 1965 年被党员开始批评。- In 1965, these people began to be criticized by party members. 2) Subset S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(I) The verbs in question are defined in Chinese studies as verbs of thought, feeling, and speech. These verbs can take on not only individual words, but also entire sentences as object syntax functions. In the theory of language, these verbs are defined as intentional. These verbs are characterized by a limited ability to appear in sentences with 把，被. 2.1. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pr) These verbs are characterized by the ability to implement the full suffixal paradigm. For example, 他看见了丈夫的戴哭的病脸。- She saw her husband’s tear-stained face. 2.1.1. Valence class S(AgAP)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PrN/Sent) For example, 听- hear，见- see. 2.1.2. Valence class S(AgAP)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pr͞A/Sent) Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 46 The difference from the previous group is that these verbs do not allow animate nouns in the position of the object syntax , eg. 觉得，感觉 - to feel. 2.2. Valence group S(AgA)P2-asp-EMP(͞cf͞R)O1(Pr) These verbs mail cannot be combined with the suffixes 了，过，着. Only negation 不 is allowed. This valence group is represented by one valence class S(AgA)P2-asp-EMP(͞cf͞R)O1(PrN/Sent). For example, 爱to love，注意 - to pay attention, 信 - to believe. 2.3. Valence group So(AgA)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(Pr) These verbs do not allow individual words as O1(Pr), individual sentences appear in the position of the object syntax. Verbs are not used with the function word 把, do not take suffixes, and the configuration is not capable of passive transformation. Verbs are represented by one valence class S(AgA)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(PrSent) 2.4. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(Pr) This valency group is represented by one verb 有. The configuration does not allow passive transformation. The verb does not appear in sentences with 把 and is not combined with adverbs of degree. 3. Subset S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(L) A distinctive feature of the verbs under consideration is that when combined with words that act as an object syntax, they do not require the presence of any prepositions or function words. For example, 他俩到了河西村。 The two of them arrived in Heshi village. These verbs are not used in sentences with 把. The configuration is not capable of passive transformation. 3.1. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(L1) Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 47 These verbs are characterized by the inability to realize a hollow suffixal paradigm. They are combined with 了，过, but not combined with 着 Verbs of this class have minimal diagnostic power in relation to the word in the function of the subject syntaxe and high diagnostic power in relation to the word in the function of the objective syntaxe. 3.2. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(L2) Verbs of this group do not accept suffixes at all, do not allow the negation 没, combining with the negation 不. Class is represented by the verb 在 to be. 4. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(D) This group is formed by verbs, usually defined as verbs with a passive meaning. Sentences with these verbs are passive in meaning, but in form they completely coincide with active ones. For example, 那回，我挨了打。- This time I was beaten. Verbs of this group do not appear in sentences with 把, passive transformation is excluded. Do not combine with adverbs of degree. In the position of addition to a verb with a passive meaning, the verb or adjective is practically indistinguishable from nouns, as noted by S.E. Yakhontov. 5. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(L1) These verbs require an object syntax with a locative value, are not capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm, all verbs of this group allow a word with a locative value only in postposition. Verbs cannot be used in sentences with 把. 5.1. Valence class S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(L1 ͞А) For example, 印 - imprint on, 集中- concentrate on. 5.2. Valence class S(Ag͞А)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O1(L1 ͞А) Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 48 For example, 定 - stop at (about a look) ，注 - stare (about glance) ，射 - fall on (about a glance, a ray, etc.) 6. Valence group S(Ag)Po(͞cf͞R)O1(L1) Verbs allow a word with a locative value only in preposition. They do not implement the full suffixal paradigm. For example, 接吻 kiss, etc. 7. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O3(L2) These verbs can be combined with a name (or its equivalent) both directly and through prepositions, i.e. have the ability for variable control. Verbs of this group are characterized by a truncated suffixal paradigm, taking the suffixes 着，了. Not used in sentences with 把, passive transformation is not possible. 7.1. Valence class S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O3(L2 А ͞) For example, 站 - stand，躺 - lie down. 7.2. Valence class S(Ag͞А)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O3(L2 А ͞) For example, 放 - lie，挂 - hang. 8. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O3(L1) This group, like the previous one, is characterized by objective locative valence. Verbs of this group do not appear in sentences with 把, passive transformation is excluded. Verbs of this group are capable of fully implementing the suffixal paradigm. These verbs can be represented by one valency class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O3(L1 ͞A). For example, 来 - to arrive，去 - to leave. 9. Valence group S(Ag)P2-asp(͞cf͞R)O3(L1) Actions denoted by these verbs are always purposeful. Passive transformation is impossible, these verbs are not used in Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 49 sentences with 把. The verbs under consideration are capable of realizing a connection with a name in the O3(L1) function in two ways - both directly and through prepositions. The implementation of the suffixal paradigm is allowed only under the condition of a direct combination of the name in the O3(L1) function and the verb. This group is represented by one valence class S(Ag)P2- ͞ ͞ asp(͞cfR)O3(L1 A). For example, 打 - hit on, 靠 - lean on, 落 - fall on. 10. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(Pt) Verbs of this group are capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm. Under certain conditions, it is possible to use them in sentences with the function word 把, for example. 他们把工作讨论讨论。- They discussed work. The configuration has the ability to undergo passive transformation. These verbs are characterized by identical lexical valence and are presented as one valence class S(AgAPL)P2(͞cf͞R)O1(PtN). 11) Subset S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O(as) The verbs of this subset denote actions that presuppose the presence of a mandatory connection with two objects, one of them appears as the initiator of the action, the second as the co-doer. A word in the position of an object syntax, correlated in an extralinguistic situation with a co-actor, has a functional meaning of situationality. 11.1. The valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O2(as) realizes the connection with the name in position O2(as) only through prepositions. Not used in sentences with 把, passive transformation is not allowed. Verbs are capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm. With these verbs, only preposition of the object is possible. 11.1.1. Valence class S(AgA)P2(͞cf͞R)O2(asA) For example, 结婚 - marry, 离婚 - divorce, 吵闹 - scandal with. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 50 11.1.2. Valence class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O2(asN) For example, 混合 - mix with，联系 - contact with，结合 - connect with. 11.2. Valence group S(Ag)P2(͞cf͞R)O3(as) Verbs of this group realize the connection with the name in position O3(as) without a preposition and through a preposition. 11.2.1. Valence class S(AgA)P2(͞cf͞R)O2(asA) For example, 认识 - to get acquainted with，告别 - to say goodbye to. 11.2.2. Valence class S(AgN)P2(͞cf͞R)O2(asN) For example, 碰 - collide with. 12) Subset S(Pt)P2(cf)O3 Words in position O3 have 2 meanings - locative (L) and instrument (In). 12.1.Valence group S(Pt)P2-asp(cf)O3(L2) Verbs of this group do not implement the full suffixal paradigm. Only suffixes 着，了 are possible, but provided that the word with the meaning of object locativity is not in postposition. Forms of doubling and singleness are impossible. Passive transformation is not allowed, verbs are not used in sentences with 把. Verbs are represented by the valence class S(Pt͞A)P2(͞cf͞R)O3(L2͞A). For example, 信封上写着地址。 - The address is written on the envelope. Tabletop - A snow-white tablecloth is laid on the table. 12.2. Valence group S(Pt)P2-asp(cf)O3(In) Verbs of this group require for their implementation the obligatory presence of a complementary syntaxe with the meaning of an instrument. Not used in sentences with 把, passive transformation is not allowed. Verbs do not have doubling or single forms, and do not take the suffix 过. The verbs of the group under consideration allow a word in the function Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 51 O3 (In) both with and without a preposition. For example, 伤口已经包上纱布。伤口用纱布包上了。- The wound is already bandaged. Trivalent verbs Trivalent verbs are capable of acting as a nuclear syntaxe in ternary verb configurations. Triple configurations include four syntaxes: nuclear, subject and two object. Trivalent verbs have been noted more than once by researchers of the Chinese language; they usually include verbs of giving and taking away (or verbs of double object). 1) Subset S(Ag)P3(͞sf͞R)O1O1 The difference between the verbs of this subset is based on the ability to require in the position of one of the object syntaxes words with different functional meanings (in the position of another object syntaxe, a word can only have the meaning of patient). 1.1. Valence group S(Ag)P3-asp(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O1 (Q) The action is directed from the source to the object of influence, the goal is to identify the object of influence through another object, named by a word, which acts as a qualification function. These verbs can appear in sentences with the function word 把, do not combine with adverbs of degree, accept both types of negation, are characterized by a truncated suffixal paradigm, and are not combined with 着. For example, 同学都把它当 做好朋友。 - All his classmates consider him a good friend. 大家都叫他英 雄。 - Everyone calls him a hero. This group is represented by the valence class group S(Ag)P3-asp(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O1 (QN). 1.2. Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O1 (ad) Verbs of this group can appear in sentences with the function word 把, the full suffixal paradigm is implemented, it is possible Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency » 52 passive transformation. For example, 偷 - steal，夺 - take away. This group is represented by the valence class S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O1 (adA). 1.3. Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O1 (L1) This group is not numerous, it is formed by complex words, the second component of which is verbs of the 进 group. Typically, such sentences use the function word 把. This group is represented by the valence class S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O1 (L1 ͞A). For example, 他们把来客 接近办公室。 - They escorted the guests to the office. 2) Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O2 (ad) The verbs under consideration represent a relatively homogeneous group in the semantics of the action they express, which is always based on the idea of “transferring something to someone.” Verbs can appear in sentences with 把; configurations of this type allow transformation with 被. These verbs are characterized by a truncated suffixal paradigm, are not combined with non-speeches of degree, and accept both types of negation. For example, 交 - convey something to someone, 许 - promise something to someone, 寄 - send something to someone, etc. 3) Valence group S(Ag)P3-asp(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O2 (L1) Verbs of this group can appear in sentences with the function word 把; passive transformation, as a rule, is not allowed. Verbs do not combine with adverbs of degree. The suffixal paradigm is truncated. Verbs do not accept suffixes if they are followed by a word in the O2 (L1) function. Verbs are represented as one valency class S(AgA)P3-asp(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt͞A)O2 (L1 ͞A). For example, 她觉得往来的路人都把眼光注射在她的身上。- She felt people passing by glaring at her. 4) Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O3 (ad) Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 53 Verbs of this group can be combined with a word in position O3 (ad) as directly and through a preposition, i.e. capable of variable control. These verbs can appear in sentences with the function word 把; configurations of this type allow passive transformation. Verbs are capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm, except for verbs that include the morpheme 给 as a second component. In the latter case, as a rule, suffixation is impossible. Verbs can take both types of negation. For example, 我送她一本书。我送给他一本书。- I gave her a book. 4.1. Valence class S(AgA)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt͞A)O3 (adA) These verbs denote actions that involve someone giving something to someone. For example, 送 - to give，借 - to borrow to someone. 4.2. Valence class S(AgA)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN/Sent)O3 (adA) Unlike the previous class, these verbs allow not only individual words, but also entire sentences or phrases in position O1 (Pt). For example, 我告诉他我没有钥匙。- I told him that I didn’t have the key. 5) Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O3 (L1) These verbs can be combined with a name in the function O3 (L1) both directly and through prepositions. Verbs can appear in sentences with the function word 把, the configuration allows passive transformation. Verbs cannot be combined with adverbs of degree. Both types of negation are allowed. With these verbs, a complete suffixal paradigm is possible, but in the case of using a complex verb that includes a prepositional morpheme, suffixal formatting of the verb is impossible. We will take you to court. We will take you to court. The road will lead you to the light. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 54 5.1. Valence class S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O3 (L1 ͞A) For example, 送 - carry out ， 押 送 - accompany ， 押 运 - transfer under guard. 5.2. Valence class S(AgN)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O3 (L1 ͞A) Unlike the previous class, these verbs allow representatives of any subclasses of nouns in the S(Ag) position. For example, 引- transport, deliver, 运- transport，搬- transport, etc. 6. Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (Pt)O2 (as) These verbs denote actions that require the presence of , two participants, one of whom takes an active part, while the second participates in the action only insofar as it is influenced by the first participant. Verbs can appear in sentences with the function word 把, the configuration allows passive transformation. Verbs cannot be combined with adverbs of degree. Both types of negation are allowed. Verbs are capable of implementing the full suffixal paradigm. This group is represented by one valence class S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtN)O2 (asAP). For example, 讨论 - to discuss something with someone，商量 - to discuss something with someone，交换 - to exchange something with someone. 7) Valence group S(Ag)P3(͞cf͞R)O1 (PtSent)O2 (as) Unlike the previous group, these verbs require not individual words, but whole sentences in the O1 (Pt) function. For example, 你和他约了在什么地方见面？- Where did you agree to meet him? The classification of monovalent verbs of the modern Chinese language was carried out on the basis of configurational (syntaxeme) analysis. The division of monovalent verbs into classes has shown that there is a certain relationship between the ability of a verb to act in the position of a certain nuclear syntax and the ability of certain representatives of subclasses of nouns to occupy the position of certain subclasses of nouns to occupy position of the subject syntax for a given verb. Bivalent verbs stand out from the variety of verbs in modern Chinese due to their ability to act as a nuclear syntax in two-place verb configurations. Unlike monovalent verbs, bivalent verbs, acting in the position of the nuclear syntaxeme, require the obligatory presence of not only words in the function of the subject syntaxeme, but also words in the object position. Trivalent verbs of the Chinese language are contrasted with mono- and bivalent verbs in their ability to act in the position of nuclear syntaxeme in three-place verbal classifications; they differ in that for their implementation they require the mandatory presence of words in the functions of two object syntaxemes. This classification was carried out using the actant division method, the classification is based on the valence of the verb, it was carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach. The semantic-syntactic characteristics of verbs are given in the form of an actant structure, consisting of actants, obligatory objects and verbs. 2. 7. Classification O.M. Gottlieb (1991) Aspectual system of classification of verbs of the modern Chinese language according to modes of action: 1) static mode of action (verbs denote a static ongoing action, excluding any change or development, for example, 站 - stand，坐 - sit，躺 - lie down，骑- ride，睡sleep, etc.); Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 56 2) relative mode of action (verbs have the meaning of reciprocity, for example 爱- love，恶- blame，恨- hate，烦- bother，尊重 respect，敬- read，对持 - support，喜欢 - like, etc.); 3) initial mode of action (verbs indicate the beginning of an action) 3.1. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed by the main meaning of the verb, e.g. 起 - to begin，开始 - to begin，着手 - to begin; 3.2. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed using the affix 起, e.g. 起步 - get moving，起兵 - start a war，起运 - start transportation，起程 - hit the road，起飞 - take off，起跑 - prepare for the start, etc.; 3.3. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed using the affix 发, e.g. 发火 - to ignite (light up)，发觉 - to notice，发病 - to get sick，发生 - to arise，发端 - to begin (to begin), etc.; 3.4. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed using the affix 开, e.g. 开创 - open, begin，开办 - found, establish，开笔 - start writing，开工 - get to work，开掘 - develop，开战open hostilities，开讲 - start a lecture (speech)，开演 - start a performance (film demonstration), etc. .; 3.5. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed using the affix 暴， e.g. 暴病 - to suddenly and seriously fall ill，暴亡 - to die suddenly，暴涨 - to rise sharply, to grow suddenly，暴动 - to rebel， 暴落 - to fall sharply (about prices, production), to fall sharply (about water)，暴怒to become angry, to become enraged etc. These verbs have a seme of surprise; 3.6. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed using the affix 起来, which is used after verbs that are not restrictive, Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 57 e.g. 说起来- start talking, start talking，笑起来- laugh, start laughing，骂起来- start swearing，哭起来- cry, start crying, etc. If this affix is used after static verbs or verbs of moving in space, it usually denotes spatial orientation , eg. 站起来 - stand up，坐起来 - sit down，跳起来 - jump up, etc.; 3.7. The meaning of the beginning of an action is conveyed by the affixes 上，着, which are used after verbs that do not denote movement, e.g. 爱上（了）- fall in love，相信着（了）- believe, believe, 恨上(了 ）- hate, etc. The meaning of these verbs is close to the meaning of inchoative verbs; 4) inchoative mode of action (verbs denote a change in state, this seme usually expressed using the affix 发, the second morpheme of such verbs usually denotes a characteristic feature, for example 发白 turn pale，发财- get rich，发呆- become numb，发酸- sour，发麻numb，发转- spin around，发暗- sweat sknet, etc. ). If you add the suffix 起来 before or after the second morpheme of such verbs, they become initial verbs. This illustrates that the relationship between verb tenses is very complex; 5) mutual mode of action (verbs denote mutual action or state) 5.1. The meaning of reciprocity of action is conveyed using the affix 对, for example. 对笑- smile at each other，对骂- quarrel，对看- look at each other，对换- exchange，对抗 - confront, etc.; 5.2. The meaning of reciprocity of action is conveyed using the affix 互, for example. 互助 - help each other，互受 - accept each other，互争 - fight，互换 - exchange，互利 - receive mutual benefit, etc.; Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 58 5.3. The meaning of reciprocity of action is conveyed by the affix 相, e.g. 相让 - to give in to each other, to compromise，相谈 - to talk, to talk，相好 - to be friends, to be on good terms，相依 - to mutually rely, to depend on each other，相配 - to suit each other，相敬 - to respect each other，相爱 - mutually love each other, etc.; 6) recurrent mode of action (verbs indicate repetition of action) 6. 1. Repeatedly - the return value is conveyed using the affix 重，for example. 重版 - republish，重修- restore，重申 - declare a second time，重选 - re-elect，重读 - reread，重出 - happen a second time，重演 - stage (a play) a second time, etc.; 6.2. Repeatedly - the return value is conveyed using the affix 复, for example. 复习 - repeat，复交 - resume diplomatic relations, restore relations ，复仇 - take revenge，复兴 revive, etc.; 7) repeated-additional (indicate actions during the repetition of which an additional increase occurs) 7.1. Repeated-additional meaning is conveyed using the affix 补，for example. 补写- add，补报- give additional information， 补播- sow，补发- additionally publish，补给- replenish，补假go on additional leave，补收- get additional，补习- do additional work，补招- get，补植 - plant, etc.; 7.2. Repeated-additional meaning is conveyed using the affix 加，for example. 加长- lengthen，加粗- thicken，加快 - accelerate，加强- intensify，加深- deepen，加重 - become heavier, etc.; 7.3. Repeated-additional meaning is conveyed using the affix 添，for example. 添补- add，添购- buy in addition，添置- buy in addition, to- Copyright JSC "CDB BIBKOM" & LLC "Kniga-Service Agency" 59 fill, add，添加- add, add，添油- lubricate the oil (add oil) and etc.; 7.4. Repeated-additional meaning is conveyed using the affix 充，for example. 充诉 additionally inform，充塞 - fill, fill ， 充实 - fill with content, strengthen, strengthen ， 充足 completely satisfy，充气 - fill with gas，充水 - fill with water, 充电 recharge, etc.; 8) contractile-diminutive mode of action 8.1. The diminutive meaning is conveyed using the affix 缩，eg. 缩短- shorten，缩水- shrink (about fabric)，缩小compress, reduce，缩减- shorten, limit，缩编 - shorten, etc.; 8.2. The contractive and diminutive meaning is conveyed using the affix 减, for example. 减低- lower, decrease，减色- fade，减少reduce，减退 - weaken, decrease, decrease，减小 - decrease (in size)，减弱- weaken，减速- slow down speed, etc.; 9) multiple-restrictive mode of action (verbs denote not too intense actions, limited in time, multiple-restrictive meaning is expressed using reduplication, e.g. 说一说- say，看一看- look，想一想- think，笑一笑- smile ， 散散步 - take a walk，聊聊天 - chat, etc.); 10) dividing mode of action (verbs denote actions aimed at division or separation) 10. 1. The meaning of separation is expressed using the affix 分, for example. 分担 to share a burden, to partially take upon oneself (responsibility), to share (with someone, hardship, grief) ，分割- to divide，分居- to separate，分裂 - to split, split into, disintegrate，分配- to distribute, divide, Copyright JSC "CDB" "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Book Service" 60 分散 - diversify, decentralize, distribute, disperse, etc.; 10.2. The meaning of separation is expressed using the affix 离, e.g. 离间 - to separate, alienate，离散 - to disperse, to disperse，离开 - to separate, to separate，离婚 - to get divorced, etc.; 10.3. The meaning of separation is expressed using the affix 割, e.g. 割除- cut off，割断- cut off，割舍- part, leave, throw something，割绝 - interrupt, stop, cut off，割开 cut，割裂- split, split, dismember, etc.; 11) unifying method of action (verbs denote actions aimed at connecting, unifying) 11.1. The meaning of unification is expressed using the affix 合， e.g. 合办 - to organize together, to work together ，合并 to connect, unite，合唱 - to sing in chorus，合成 - to compose (in total), to synthesize ，合拢 - to connect, fold, bring together，合作 to collaborate, etc.; 11.2. The meaning of unification is expressed using the affix 同， e.g. 同化 - to assimilate, unite，同居 - to cohabitate，同情 - to sympathize，同行 - to go (ride) together, to have the same profession, 同感 to sympathize, etc.; 11.3. The meaning of unification is expressed using the affix 结， e.g. 结拜 - to become related; Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 61 11.4. The meaning of unity is expressed using the affix 团，, for example, 团结 - to rally, unite，团聚 - to gather together, to converge，团圆 - to converge, to gather，团拜 - to collectively congratulate, etc.; 12) return method of action (indicate actions that have a return nature) 12.1. The meaning of recurrence is expressed using the affix 回，for example. 回报 - convey the answer，回签 - sign in response，回电 - send a return telegram，回访 - pay a return visit，回顾 - look back，回归 - return，回击 - fight back, strike back，回敬 pay a return visit, make a return gift, drink back glass, answer a greeting，回想 - remember, remember, etc.; 12.2. The meaning of reflexivity is expressed using the affix 还，for example. 还给 - return, give，还击 - fight back, strike back, 还礼 - give a visit, give a return gift, drink a return glass, return a greeting，还手 - return a blow to a blow，还乡return to your homeland (to your native place) ，还原 - to recover, to get better, to recover, etc. ; 12.3. the meaning of return is expressed using the affixes 反, 返， 归， e.g., 归队 - to return to one’s unit, to return to duty, to return to work, 归国 - to return to one’s homeland，归根 - to address the root (of the question)， 反驳 - to object, refute，反对- confront, resist, object，反诘- ask a counter question, 反抗- resist, resist, 反扑- launch a counterattack，反问- ask a counter question, 反映- reflect, display，返工- finish, redo, return for revision，返航 - go on a return flight, follow a return flight，返回 - return, return, etc.; Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 62 13) durative mode of action (verbs indicate actions that can be interrupted) 13.1. The meaning of durativeness is embedded in the semantics of the word itself, for example. 续 - to continue ， 断 续 - to be interrupted, to proceed intermittently ， 连 续 to continue continuously， 持续 - to last, to continue; 13.2. The meaning of durativeness is expressed using the affix 下去, e.g. 想下去- keep thinking，做下去- keep doing，说下去continue talking，工作下去- keep working，考虑下去- keep discussing, etc. The use of this affix with verbs of movement in space gives them the meaning of spatial orientation, for example. 落下去 - to fall, descend, 滑下去 - to slide, slide，流下去 - to flow down，跳下去 - to jump，扔下去 - to dump, throw off，拉下去 - to stretch, etc.; 14) generally effective method of action 14.1. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed using the affix 完，for example, 吃完- finish，作完- finish，说完- finish，学完finish your studies, study，喝完- finish your drink，写完- finish，讲完-explain, finish the explanation and etc.; 14.2. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed using the affix 好，for example, 念好- finish reading，画好- finish drawing，穿好- put on, 改好correct，收拾好- tidy up, etc.; 14.3. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed using the affix 掉，for example, 烧掉- burn，跑掉- escape, get away，流掉- drain，扔掉throw away, reset, etc.; 14.4. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed using the affix 了. In this meaning, 了 is used as 掉, and there are two readings: le and liao. Between this affix and the root of the word, insert the affix 得 or 不, which will give the meaning of the possibility or impossibility of performing an action. For example, 忘了- forget，忘不了- don’t forget，喝了- drink，喝得了- you can drink，吃了- eat，割了 share，卖了 sell, etc.; 14.5. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed by the affix 上，the root of the word is a static verb or a verb of movement or movement in space, e.g. , 躺上- lie down，座上- sit down， 踏上- rise，放上- put down，穿上- put on，跳上- jump up, jump，爬上- climb, climb, etc.; 14.6. The meaning of overall performance is conveyed using the affix 见，usually the root of the word is a verb of thought, feeling and perception, for example, 听见 - hear，看见 - see，闻见 - smell，瞧见 - see, notice, etc.; 15) absolutely effective method of action (indicate an action during which all objects are affected) 15.1. The meaning of absolute effectiveness is expressed using the affix 光，for example, 吃光 to eat to crumbs，说光 to express everything，烧光 to burn to the ground，忘光to completely forget, etc.; 15.2. The meaning of absolute effectiveness is expressed using the affix 尽，e.g., 想尽 - go through in your mind (all methods) ，用尽 - use completely, exhaust ，历尽 - experience completely, endure to the end，尝尽 - drink to the bottom (e.g. cup of suffering), etc.; 16) stative-effective method of action (the meaning of stative effectiveness is expressed using the suffix 成), for example. 作成make，挖成- dig, dig，建成- build，编成- complete, form, compose，变成- transform, transform，铸成cast, form，造成- execute, make, create, etc.; Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 64 17) effective-restrictive mode of action (the meaning of effective restrictiveness is conveyed using the affix 满)，for example, 流 满- fill，堆满- pile up, overwhelm, clutter ，住满- to settle，装满- to load, load, fill, etc.; 18) subjective-effective mode of action (the meaning of subjective effectiveness is conveyed using the affix 足 or 够), for example, 笑够 laugh ， 吃 足 （ 够 ） - eat ， 哭 够 - cry ， 练 足 （ 够 ） train ，喝足（ 够） - get drunk，站足（够） - brew, etc.; 19) result-target method of action 19.1. result-target meaning is embedded in the semantics of the word itself, for example. 获得 - get, get, acquire，取得 - acquire, receive, achieve，求得 - get what you want，截获 - capture, intercept, etc.; 19.2. The result-target meaning is conveyed using the affix 到, for example. 买到 - buy，说到 - say，受到 - get，达到 - achieve, 找到 - find, etc.; 20) resultative-transitive mode of action (verbs denote actions that are the result of movement in space). The meaning of resultative transitivity is conveyed using the affix 过; between this affix and the root morpheme, you can insert the affix 得 or 不, which gives the meaning of the possibility or impossibility of performing an action. For example, 走过 - cross，跑过 - run across，爬过 - climb over，渡过 - cross, swim，跳过 - jump over, etc. The meaning of this affix does not coincide with the meaning of another affix 过, meaning “to have some kind of vital experience". But sometimes these two unequal meanings are combined in one affix, for example. 这座山我已经爬过。 - I have already climbed this mountain. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 65 This classification of verbs by mode of action divides verbs into 20 lexical-semantic classes. The classification indicates with the help of which affixes this or that meaning is conveyed; therefore, it is carried out within the framework of a morphological approach, based on methods of action. 2. 8. Classification of verbs according to Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao according to the ability to take objects (1995) Taking objects is a very important function of verbs, but not all verbs have this function, different types of verbs take different types of objects. Based on the function of verbs to take objects, verbs are divided into: 1) verbs that can take objects (e.g. 吃饭 - eat，读书 - study)； 2) verbs that cannot take objects (e.g. 生气 get angry，站岗- stand on duty, 气喘 - out of breath, 完毕 - end, end, 苏醒 - come to your senses). Chinese has more verbs that can take an object. Verbs that can take complements, according to the number of complements they accept, can again be divided into: 1) verbs that can take one complement (for example, 洗衣服 wash clothes, 保卫和平 - protect the world); 2) verbs that can take two objects (for example, 给他礼物 - give him a gift，送你一本书 - give you a book，借老王三块钱 - lend Lao Wang 3 yuan). Chinese has more verbs that can take one object. Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 66 Verbs that can take one complement are in turn divided into: 1) verbs with a nominal complement (for example, 写信 - write a letter，穿衣服 - put on clothes) 2) verbs with a non-nominal object, also called verbs that can take the objects expressed by the verb (for example, 继续讨论 - continue to discuss，禁止吸烟 - smoking is prohibited) 3) verbs that can take both nominal and non-nominal object (for example, 喜欢妈妈，喜欢打球 - to love mother and love to play ball; 受礼物，受压迫 - to receive a gift and endure oppression). Verbs that can take two objects can be divided into: 1) verbs of the “给” group (verbs of giving) (eg. , 送 - give，交给 transfer); structures with these verbs are formed according to the following model: verb+ (给)+object 1 +object 2 or verb+object 2 + 给+object 1 2) verbs of the group “取” (verbs of taking away) (for example, 获得 - receive, 取 得- to acquire, 骗取- to obtain by deception, 受- to receive，收 to receive) structures with these verbs are formed according to the following model: verb+（到）+object 1+object 2 3) verbs of the group “借” structures with these verbs can be formed according to the two models presented above. For example, 借给她五元钱，借到她五元钱 - lend him five yuan; Verbs with a nominal object, in turn, are divided into: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 67 1) verbs that take after themselves an object, which is the subject of the action, which is also called “subject in postposition”, for example . 下雨 - it is raining，刮风 - the wind is blowing; 2) verbs that take after themselves additions that are not the subject of the action, which cannot be called subjects in postposition, for example. 吃饭 - eat，骑马- ride a horse，看电影- watch a movie. Verbs with a non-nominal object are in turn divided into: 1) verbs that take an object expressed by the included part, for example. 希望他健康 - I hope he’s healthy；以为你不来 - I thought you wouldn’t come; 2) verbs that do not take complements expressed by the included part, for example. 继续干 - continue to work; 予以照顾 - to pay attention. Verbs that can take both a nominal and a non-nominal object are, in turn, divided into: 1) verbs that take a demonstrative object. Structures with such verbs are formed according to the following model: verb+ 谁/什么, for example. 看见小王 - see Xiao Wang；看见小王洗衣服 - see Xiao Wang washing clothes. 2) verbs that take an addition and are demonstrative or declarative in nature. Structures with such verbs are formed according to the following models: verb+ 谁/什么 verb+怎么样 For example, 喜欢书 to love a book，喜欢热闹 - to love liveliness， 喜欢热点儿 - I like it when it’s warmer. Verbs that do not take an object are divided into: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 68 1) typical verbs that do not take an object, for example. 休息 - to rest，出发 - to travel; 2) verbs with a verbal-object structure: 睡觉 - go to bed，革命（革他的命） - carry out a revolution, 上当（上他的当） - incur a loss. Depending on whether verbs can independently act as a predicate, they are divided into: 1) independent, for example. 我走 - I'm coming，他读 - he reads; 2) non-independent (for such verbs the presence of a nominal part in the form of an addition is necessary), for example. 我们加以研究 - we are exploring. Chinese has more independent verbs. Independent verbs are divided into: 1) independent verbs that can take objects, for example. 承认中国支付最丰富 - recognize that the flora of China is the richest 2) independent verbs that cannot take additions, for example 病 - to be sick，休息 - to rest. Non-independent verbs are divided into: 1) non-independent verbs with a nominal object (for example, 等于 to be equal，当作 - to become，称为 - to be called; 历时剧不等于历史 书。 - a historical opera cannot be compared with a historical book. 2) non-independent verbs with a non-nominal object, also called verbs that can take the objects expressed by the verb (for example, 显得 - to show oneself，免得 - to avoid) 3) non-independent verbs that can take both a nominal and a non-nominal object (for example, 在于 - consist，像 - to be similar ，如 - to be similar，好像 - to be similar，犹如 - to resemble，装作 - Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 69 depict). 月色如水。- The color of the month is similar to water. 阿河如换了一个人。- And He seemed to have been replaced. . The work of Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao discusses in detail the classification of verbs within the syntactic approach. When systematizing the functions of verbs, Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao are guided by the following principles: 1) highlighting functions in accordance with the grammatical form; 2) highlighting the functions of the verb based on phrases; 3) highlighting the functions of verbs according to other criteria. In the work of Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao, the classification of verbs is based on valency and a syntactic approach is used. When classifying bivalent verbs into verbs of giving and verbs of taking away, a lexical-semantic element appears in the classification. 2. 9. Classification of verbs according to transitivity according to Hu Yushu and Fan Xiao (1995) Differences between transitive and intransitive verbs: 1) a verb that can take additions in preposition is considered transitive, for example. 我现在什么也不知道。- Now I don’t know anything; 2) a verb is considered transitive, which can take an addition that has become another member of the sentence, for example. 关于这个问题我们将在后面讨论 。- Regarding this matter, we will discuss it later; 3) a verb is considered intransitive if it cannot take an object in postposition, for example. 它正在树梢上跳舞呢。- He rides on top of a tree. 4) a verb is considered intransitive if it cannot take an object, but sometimes takes a compliment of place, for example. 他们经去北京了。- They have already left for Beijing; Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 70 5) verbs that change their meaning depending on whether they take additions are transitive, for example. He sat down and 她坐火车走了。- He rode off on the train. Transitive verbs can again be divided into: 1) based on whether transitive verbs take an object: -verbs that necessarily take an object, e.g. 姓 - bear a surname，称为 - be called，作为 - be, become，当作 serve as，好比- like, like，属于- relate to, be part of. These verbs have a number of features: the object follows the verb, the object can only appear after the verb and the object cannot be shortened or omitted; - verbs that may or may not take an object, e.g. 看 - watch，读 - read，写 - write; 2) according to the structure of sentences, which is formed by the verb and objects: - verbs that take one object, forming the structure subject + verb + object, for example. 看 - watch，读 - read，写 write; - verbs that take two objects, forming the structure subject + verb + object 1 + object 2, for example. 请 - to ask，派 to direct，要求- to demand，命令 - to order; - verbs that attach another verb in the presence of an object, forming the structure subject + verb 1 + object + verb 2, for example. 我请他喝酒。 - I invited him to have a drink; 3) according to the grammatical nature of the added complement: - verbs that can attach complements - objects, for example. 读- read，喝- drink，吃 - eat； Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 71 - verbs that can attach objects - actions, but cannot attach objects - objects, for example. 觉得 - to believe，打算 to intend，认为 - to consider, to believe; -verbs that can attach both objects - objects and objects - actions, for example. 看见一个人 - to see a person and 看见她在洗衣服呢 - to see that she is washing clothes. Based on whether intransitive verbs take objects, they can be divided into: 1) regular verbs, which do not take objects, e.g. 休息 to rest，散步 - to walk; 2) unidirectional verbs that do not take objects, for example. 我想她抱歉。- I apologized to him; 我跟他交涉。- I communicate with him; 我们为人民服务 。- We serve the motherland; 3) bidirectional verbs that do not take objects, for example. 他们相识了。They met；小李和小张会面了。- Xiao Li and Xiao Zhang met； 4) Intransitive verbs with a verb-object structure, e.g. 洗澡 - bathe，睡觉 - sleep，叹气 - sigh，上当 - to be deceived, to suffer a loss，吃亏 - to be offended, to suffer. There are also intransitive verbs that can only take objects in impersonal sentences, e.g. 这个院子里住着两个人。- Two people live in this yard; 这里流传着一个人所共知的笑话。 - Here one person’s well-known jokes are passed on from mouth to mouth. This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, its basis is the transitivity-intransitivity of the verb, then the classification of transitive and intransitive verbs continues according to lexical - Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 72 semantic compatibility, therefore the basis of this classification is also semantics. 2. 10. Classification of Hu Yushu and Fangxiao by valence (1995) 1) monovalent verbs that can be associated with only one component of the sentence (subject), e.g. 小王醉了。- Xiao Wang got drunk; 2) bivalent verbs, which can be associated with two components of a sentence (subject and object), for example. 他读书 。He is reading a book; 3) trivalent verbs, which can be associated with three components of a sentence (subject, two objects), e.g. 我送他礼物。- I give him a gift；我跟他商量工作 。- I discuss work with him. This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, its basis is valency. The authors divide verbs into monovalent, bivalent and trivalent. 2. 11. Classification by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao according to modes of action (1995) According to modes of action, modern verbs of the Chinese language are divided into: 1) static verbs - verbs of belonging that cannot take the suffixes 了 and 着, for example. 是 - to be，姓 - to bear a surname，等于 - to be equal; - verbs of feeling that can take the suffix 了，for example. 知道 - to know，相信 - to believe，抱歉 - to feel guilty, 怕 to be afraid; Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 73 - verbs of position in space taking the suffixes 了 and 着, for example. 站 - stand，坐 - sit，躺 - lie，住 - live; - verbs of placement in space, taking the suffixes 了 and 着，for example. 拿 - to pick up，挂 - to hang，吊 - to hang, 抱 - to hold in hands; 2) verbs of movement - verbs of action Action verbs are again divided into: - instantaneous, which can take the suffix 了，for example. 跳 - jump，砍 - cut, 碰 - run into; - continuous, which grammatically can take the suffix 着， e.g. 看- watch，吃 - eat，洗澡 - swim，想- think; -effective verbs Effective verbs, in turn, are divided into: -instant, which can take the suffix 了，for example. 死 - die，醒 - wake up，见 - see; - continuous, which can take the suffix 了，eg 变化 - change，长大- grow，走进- set. In this classification, the author distinguishes static verbs (which in turn is divided into verbs of belonging, verbs of feeling, verbs of position in space, verbs of placement in space), verbs of movement (which in turn is divided into verbs of action - instantaneous, long-term, and effective. Effective ones are again divided into instantaneous and long-term. The classification is made within the framework of a morphological approach; it is based on modes of action. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 74 2.12. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to transitivity-intransitivity (2001) Verbs can be classified according to different criteria, different classifications have their own meaning and functions. Let's look at several ways to classify verbs. Verbs that can take objects and verbs that cannot take objects are divided into transitive and intransitive. Transitive verbs take object complements, result complements, e.g. 看书 – read a book、写字 – write a hieroglyph、发动群众 – revive the masses、打球 – play ball, etc. There are some motivating verbs that are transitive, e.g. 去皮（使皮去掉）- peel、上颜色 – paint, 出汗 – sweat 、平地 – level the ground。 In a specific situation, the complements of transitive verbs may be omitted (when answering a question, in the context). For example: -你听录音吗？-Are you listening to the recording? -听。-I’m listening. He watched this film yesterday, why did he go watch it again today? Verbs such as 姓 - bear a surname、叫 - be called 、属于 belong、具有 - have、成为 - become、等于 - equal, etc. are also transitive, but the complement is not omitted. Intransitive verbs do not take an object, e.g. 着想 - to reflect, 相反 - to be opposite、斡旋 - to mediate, to mediate、问世 - to gain fame、通航 - to sail on the sea, to fly through the air、休息 - to rest、指正 - to make adjustments、毕业 to graduate (university) 、送行 - to see off etc. Many intransitive verbs can attach non-objective objects. Intransitive verbs can attach the following types of objects: 1. indicating the place of action, for example. 上山 – go to the mountains、回家 – return home、去上海 – go to Shanghai、出国 – leave the country、下乡 – go to the village、出院 – discharge from the hospital； 2. denoting an instrument of action, e.g. 睡床 - fall asleep、过筛 - strain; 3. denoting the existence, appearance or disappearance of objects, for example. 来了两个人 。 -Two people came. 蹲着一个石狮子。 - Sit on a stone lion. 死了一头牛。-One cow died. It should be noted that there are a number of verbs with a verb-object structure, for example. 见面 - see each other、握手 - shake hands, 结婚 - get married, etc. An addition cannot be used after them. For example, you cannot say 见面他、握手你、结婚她, etc. Some verbs have several meanings, in one of the meanings they are transitive, in the other they are intransitive. For example: 去南京 – go to Nanjing – intransitive verb; 去皮 – peel - transitive verb; 笑了 - laughed – intransitive verb; 笑他 – to laugh at him is a transitive verb. The classification is carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis is the transitivity-intransitivity of the verb. 2.13. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to semantic meanings (2001) 1) Action verbs - verbs denoting the manifestation of action occupy the majority of verbs in the Chinese language. For example, 吃 eat、看 watch、听 listen、说 speak、试验 experience、辩论 evaluate、收集 collect、表演 perform、通知 notify, etc. Verbs Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Book-Service Agency" 76 actions - the most classic verbs, have the following grammatical features: 1. can be reduplicated; 2. can take state suffixes 了、着、过; 3.negative particles 不、没 are used for negation; 4. can add phrases denoting frequency or length of time; 5.can form incentive offers, for example. 来！ - Come! 走！-Let's go. 6. You can ask them questions that require a positive or negative answer. 7. do not accept adverbs of degree before themselves, for example. it is impossible to say 很吃、非常跑。In sentences such as 很了解问题 to understand the problem very well, the adverb 很 does not refer specifically to the verb, but to the entire phrase. 2) Verbs of state - verbs denoting the physical or mental state of a person or animal. For example, 爱 to love、恨 to hate、喜欢 to like、讨厌 to despise、想念 to get bored、希望 to hope (mental states) and 聋 to go deaf、瞎 to go blind、瘸 to limp, 饿 to starve、醉 to get drunk、病 to get sick、困 to fall asleep (physiological state). Grammatical differences between verbs of state and verbs of action: 1. most verbs of state attach adverbs of degree, for example. 很 饿 to be very hungry、特别喜欢 to be liked excessively、十分讨厌 to be absolutely hated. But verbs such as 病 to be sick、醒 to wake up do not attach adverbs of degree. 2. verbs denoting mental states are transitive, verbs denoting physiological states are intransitive. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 77 3) Linking verbs The meaning of linking verbs is usually very abstract, their main function is to connect the subject and the object, they mean that between the subject and the object there are some relations, therefore an object is placed after linking verbs; most objects following the linking verb are not omitted. There are not many linking verbs, mainly the following two types: 3.1. 是 to become, to be 3.2.叫 (in the meaning of “to be called”) 、姓 to be by surname、当作 to become、成为 to become、像 to be similar、等于 to be equal The grammatical features of these verbs are as follows: 1. in most cases, the particle 不 is used for negation, sometimes used 没； 2.except 像 to be similar, usually do not take the complement of degree in front of it, the complement cannot be omitted; 3.usually not reduplicated, 成为 become、叫 called、像 be similar, etc. verbs do not have a double form; 4.after them auxiliary words 了、着； are rarely used 5.cannot act as predicates in sentences with 把; 6.cannot form incentive offers. 3.3 verb 有 to have 4) modal verbs 4.1. Modal verbs denoting desire: 要 need、想 think, 愿意 desire、肯 agree、敢 dare； 4.2. Modal verbs of obligation: 应该 to be due、应当 to become、应 should、该 should、得 should； 4.3. Modal verbs denoting objective and subjective assessment: 能 able、能够 able、可以 possible; Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 78 4.4.modal verbs denoting permission: 能、可以、可、准、许, 得 possible； 4.4.modal verbs denoting assessment: 配 correspond、值得 worth ； 4.5.modal verbs denoting possibility: 可能、会、要、得、能 able。 The classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis is semantics. 2.14. Classification of verbs by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to the types of complements they can attach (2001) 1) verbs that can attach subject complements (nouns, pronouns, numerals). For example, 打电话 to make phone calls, buy things, drive a car, sew clothes, etc. 2) verbs that can attach verbal objects (verbs, adjectives). For example, 进行动员 to mobilize、加以指责 to criticize、开始研究 to begin to study、继续讨论 to continue to discuss、喜欢跳舞 to love to dance。And also verbs such as 希望、从事、给予、装作、声明、值得、受、 敢于、企图、受到、觉得, etc. Some verbs can attach both subject and verbal objects. E.g. as a supplement. For example: 我希望你明天早一点儿来。- I hope you come early tomorrow. Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 79 刚才我看见了有一个人从这儿出去了。- I just saw one person leaving here. 他认为事业是最重要的。- He thinks that work is the most important thing, family is not so important. Many verbs that can join sentences as objects can also join objects expressed by verbal constructions. In this case, the addition can be more than a sentence and represent an entire paragraph. 4) verbs adding two objects. For example, to give, to teach, to give, to give, etc. 张老师教我们中文。 - Teacher Zhang teaches Chinese to us. 他们给了我一本书。- They gave me a book. [ 7, p. 155] This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis is valence. 2.15. Classification of verbs Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to duration and short duration of action (2001) Some actions can continue, can be repeated, these are continuous verbs. For example, 看 watch、写 write、听 listen、说 talk、跳 dance、拍 take pictures、敲 knock、坐 sit、批评 criticize、挂 hang、放 put、租 shoot, etc. After such verbs you can put 着：他在纸 上写着什么，我看不清楚。-What is he writing on paper that I can’t see? 教室里坐着一些学生。- Several students are sitting in the audience. Continuous verbs can be reduplicated. For example: 你去看看。 -Go take a look. 你把自己的意见说了说，大家都表示同意。-You expressed your ideas, everyone agreed. Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 80 进来坐坐吧。-Come in, have a seat. Short verbs cannot last for any length of time; they stop immediately after they begin. For example, 死 to die、散 to dissipate、懂 to understand、完 to finish、结婚 to marry、成立 to found、出现 to arise、消失 to disappear、来 to come, etc. You cannot use 着 after them. [ 7, p. 156] This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis is the semantics of the verb. 2.16. Classification of verbs Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua according to independence or non-independence of action (2001) Verbs denoting independent and non-independent actions. Verbs denoting independent actions denote actions that are controlled by those who perform these actions, usually the one who performs them does it intentionally. For example, sing, study, buy, beat, scold, teach, eat, drink, help and others. Verbs denoting uncontrolled actions are called non-independent verbs. For example, 病、死、完、知道、怕、塌, etc. Such verbs cannot participate in the formation of incentive sentences. This classification is made within the framework of a syntactic approach, based on semantics. [ 7, p. 156] 2. 17. Classifications of O. M. Gottlieb (2004) Based on the fact that the semantics of verbs is quite diverse and verbs of different categories differ in their grammatical capabilities, O. M. Gottlieb identifies four main categories of verbs: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 81 1) connectives and verbs - connectives (connectives and verbs - connectives, being verbs in essence, do not mean, however, any specific actions, but convey the meaning of judgment and beingness, for example 是 ，为，即 refer to ligaments; ，等于，分成，分为 refer to linking verbs .. Connective verbs, like connectives, can perform the function of the first part of a compound nominal predicate, and from the point of view of morphology, can be formed with the suffix 了. Connectives and connective verbs, acting as the first part of a compound nominal predicate, form the type of sentences that is accepted call “sentence with 是”)； 2) modal verbs (verbs expressing possibility, desire, obligation); Based on differences in semantics, modal verbs can be divided into: - modal verbs of possibility (eg, 能，会，可以，能够); - modal verbs of desire (for example, 愿意，想，要，希望，打算，啃，敢)； -modal verbs of obligation (for example, 应该，应当，得，要必须); 3) causative verbs (verbs that force the object to act as the subject of another action, for example 使，叫，请); 4) standard verbs (convey the meaning of actions, changes and states). From the point of view of lexical structure, they are represented by simple, derived and complex words. From the point of view of semantics, valence and formation, standard verbs can be divided into the following categories: Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 82 1) phase verbs: 开始，继续，结束, etc. These verbs are usually do not take resultative and modifying suffixes and, like modal verbs, can act as the first part of a complex verbal predicate, for example. 咱们开始工作；你最好还是继续学习; 2) verbs - prepositions: 在，到，上，往，朝, etc., which usually do not accept modifiers and effective suffixes, but acting as a predicate, can control a locative compliment, for example. 3) directional verbs (verbs of the 进 group) Verbs of this group cannot be formed with the suffix “着”, cannot be reduplicated, cannot control an object, but accept a locative compliment; they often act as suffixes, conveying different meanings of modification and result, e.g. 跑来，送去，站起来，说下去，看出来，想起来，拿回去，挂上来，搬出去, etc. 4) verbs of movement: 走，跑，爬，飞，游，流，站，坐， 躺, etc. Verbs of this class are easily combined with various modifying and effective suffixes; they control compliments of place, time and frequency. For example: 走出去，站起来，飞过去；跑到终点，坐在椅子上. 5) verbs of movement: 放，挂，搬，摆，投，扔，搁，寄. Their formation is similar to the formation of verbs of movement; they can control the direct object and the complement of place, while inverting the object into preposition to the predicate (sentences with 把), for example: 扔出去， 挂上来； 把书放在桌子上， 把大衣挂在衣架 子上去。 6) verbs of mental actions and states: 爱，恨，知道，喜欢，相信，害怕，羡慕，明白, etc. Verbs of this group do not take the suffix “着” and are rarely combined with modifiers and effective suffixes , Copyright JSC " TsKB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 83 can control the addition expressed by the included part (subjective-predicative combination). For example: 我早就主导他是一个好人。 7) verbs with passive meaning: 受，忍，挨，遭. These verbs cannot be reduplicated, do not accept suffixes - modifiers, acting as a predicate, convey the meaning of passivity: 他挨尽了主人的打骂。 In the Chinese language, the following groups of intransitive verbs can be distinguished: 1) some verbs constructed according to the verb-objective type of connection: 念书，睡觉，吃饭，毕业，做梦, etc. 2) verbs of direction, verbs – prepositions and verbs of movement 着想，相反，休息，指正. Based on the ability or inability to be formed with the suffix “着”, verbs can be divided into two large classes: verbs that can be formed with “着” are called duration verbs (durative verbs); verbs that are not capable of taking this suffix are called perfect (for example, 赞成，批准开始，明白，觉得，保证，同意，结束，告诉确定，发现, etc.). Verbs of the second class are rarely combined with modifiers and cannot be reduplicated. Suffixes - modifiers, forming such verbs, convey different meanings of effectiveness. Based on the semantics of verbs, O. M. Gottlieb divides them into 4 categories - copulas and copula verbs, modal verbs (which in turn are divided into modal verbs of possibility, modal verbs of desire and modal verbs of obligation), causative verbs, standard verbs, - This classification is based on semantics, it is carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach O. M. Gottlieb notes that, from the point of view of lexical structure, all verbs can be represented by simple ones, Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 84 derivative and compound words - this classification is made within the framework of the morphological approach, the basis is the lexical structure. Further, O. M. Gottlieb divides standard verbs into the following categories: phase verbs, verbs - prepositions, verbs of direction, verbs of movement, verbs of movement, verbs of mental actions and states, verbs with a passive meaning - this classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, its the basis is the semantics of the verb. O. M. Gottlieb classifies intransitive verbs as verbs built according to the verbal-object type of connection, directional verbs, prepositional verbs and movement verbs; this classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach, based on transitivity-intransitivity. Based on the ability or inability to be formalized with the suffix “着”, O. M. Gottlieb divides all verbs into durative and perfect - this classification is made within the framework of a morphological approach, based on modes of action. 2.18. Classification of verbs Zhu Qingming (2005) 1) modal verbs Modal verbs in Chinese are verbs expressing possibility, desire, obligation, in some grammar books they are also called auxiliary verbs. The number of modal verbs is quite small, their peculiarity is that they are not reduplicated, do not add suffixes 了、着、过；used before other verbs；are an unambiguous answer to the question; are divided into monosyllabic and disyllabic. One-syllable: 想 think、要 need、 能 can、会 can、肯 assert、愿 desire、敢 dare、得 be obliged。 Two-syllable: 应该 must、应当 must、可以 can、必须 necessary、能够 can 、愿意 wish。 2) standard verbs Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency 85 Standard verbs in Chinese are a large type of verbs, including verbs of action and behavior, verbs of mental action, linking verbs, verbs of existence and change, directions, etc. 2.1.action verbs, which denote the action of a person or animal, in the Chinese language there are more of them than other types of verbs. For example: 吃 eat, drink, walk, run, jump, blow, hit, push, sing, talk, smile, listen, ask, smell, watch,读 read 、写 write、记 remember、参观 visit、旅行 travel、入学 start studying、退伍 demobilize、成长 grow up、登记 register、询问 interview、看中 choose、赞美 evaluate、歌 唱sing、抢救 hurry to help、牺牲 sacrifice life、见面 meet 、结婚 get married、毕业 finish your studies、工作 work、学习 study、生活 live； 2.2. Verbs of mental action that denote the mood, physiological state of a person or animal. For example: 爱 to love、恨 to hate、怕 to be afraid、急 to hurry、想 to want、聋 to go deaf、瘸 to limp、饿 to starve、困 to fall asleep、喜欢 to like、害怕 to be afraid、担心 to worry、希望 to hope、讨厌 to despise、打算 to intend; 2.3.linking verbs, the main grammatical function of which is to connect the subject and predicate, their number is very small. For example: 是 to be、叫 to be called、姓 to be by surname、象 to resemble、属于 to belong、等于 to be、作为 to be、成为 to become； 2.4. Verbs of existence and change, which denote the existence, change, appearance or disappearance of a person or thing. For example: 在 to be、存在 to exist、出现 to arise、发生 to happen、 Copyright JSC "CDB BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 86 发展 to develop、有 to have、演变 to change、生长 to grow、死亡 to die disappear； 2.5 .verbs of direction, include one-syllable and two-syllable verbs, in a sentence they are a predicate or a compliment, for example: 上 rise xia、下 descend、进 come in、出 go out、过 cross、回 return、起 rise、来 come、去 leave、上来 rise 、下来 go down、进来 enter、出来 go out、回来 return、起来 get up、上去 go up、下去 go down、进去 enter、出去 go out、回去 return。 This classification is made within the framework of the syntactic approach , the basis is semantics. 2.19. Classification of verbs Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen (2008) 1) verbs of action: 看 watch、写 write、画 draw、站 stand、谈 talk、听 listen、走 walk； 2) verbs of behavior: 表示 designate、保卫 guard、 拥护 to protect、通过 to overcome、禁止 to prohibit； 3) verbs of mental actions: 爱 to love、怕 to be afraid、想 to want, 喜欢 to like、希望 to hope、知道 to know； 4) verbs of change and development: 生 to be born、死 to die 、生长 to grow、发展 develop、变化 change、开始 begin； 5) verbs of evaluation, presence, existence: 是 to be、有 to have、 在 to be； 6) verbs of direction: 上 to rise、下 to descend、进 to enter, 出 to go out、起 to rise、过 to pass、回 return、来 come、去 leave。 Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 87 According to the ability of a verb to take an addition after itself, they can be divided into two types: 1) transitive 1.1.verbs, which can only take one addition: 写信 write a letter、看电视 watch TV、穿衣服 wear clothes、研究问题 study a question； 2.2.verbs that can take two objects: 给我书 give me a book、教朋友汉语 teach a friend Chinese； 2) intransitive verbs 2.1. Monosyllabic intransitive verbs: 活 live、病 get sick、醒 wake up、躺 lie down； 2.2. Monosyllabic intransitive verbs: 休息 to rest、咳嗽 to cough、 胜利 to win、失败 to lose、出发 to leave、前进 to advance。 Classifications of verbs according to Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen are made within the framework of a syntactic approach, in the first case the basis is semantics, in the second - transitivity – intransitivity. 2.20. Classification of Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kirimbaev according to semantic meaning and functions (2011) Verbs are a large class, they are all similar in grammatical functions, you can consider them from different points of view and distinguish different subtypes : 1) action verbs, eg. 听 listen、写 write、吃 eat、喝 drink、 搬运 check in luggage、改造 rearrange； 2) verbs of presence, e.g. 有 have、在 be、变 change、出现 appear、消失 disappear； 3) causative verbs, e.g. 使 to force、叫 to call、让 to force、请 to ask、鼓励 to encourage、要求 to demand； Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 88 4) verbs expressing a mental action or state, for example. 想 want、爱 love、害怕 fear、相信 trust、希望 hope； 5) formal verbs, e.g. 进行 to carry out、加以 to apply、予以 to give、给予 to give； 6) verbs of direction, e.g. 来 come、去 leave、上 rise xia、下 go down、进来 come in、进去 come in； 7) verbs of evaluation (linking verbs), e.g. 是 to be； 8) modal verbs, e.g. 能 can、会 can、应 must、敢 dare、可以 can、应当 become。 The classification is made within the framework of a syntactic approach, the basis is semantics. 2.21. Classification of Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kirimbaev according to the ability to attach an object (2011) 1) Transitive verbs are verbs that perform the function of a predicate and attach an object to themselves: 1.1. verbs with an object, in in which the complement is expressed by a noun: 吃 eat、买 buy、具有 have、发生 occur、 到达 reach、推广 expand； 1.2.verbs with an complement in which the complement is expressed by a verb: 觉得 think、感到 feel、能够 grab、值得worth it die、受到 receive； 1.3. verbs with an object in which the object is expressed by a noun and a verb: 喜欢 like、相信 believe、听 listen、说 talk、等于 equal。 2) Intransitive verbs are those verbs that cannot be attached to themselves additions, and in the case when they act as a predicate, can only attach a subjective addition place, for example. 咳嗽 cough Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Kniga-Service Agency" 89 、游泳 swim、睡觉 sleep、着眼 look or 来 come、走 walk、死 die、住 live、躺 lie。 3) Specific verbs 3) .1. Formal verbs are verbs that act as an object, and only in form act as a predicate, for example. 给予 to give, 予以 to give、加以 to apply、进行 to carry out、给以 to give。 Some formal verbs can attach 着、了、过, e.g. 我们对这种情况进行了深入调查。 - We have conducted a thorough study of this situation. Definitions can act as an addition to a formal verb, for example. 同学们对这次考试做了认真的准备。 -The fellow students carefully prepared for this exam. 3.2.disjunctive verbs are those verbs that can be separated, for example. 我洗澡了。 -I washed myself. Disjunctive verbs cannot attach a definition, for example, to say “graduate from university”, you cannot use the phrase 毕业大学, you need to say 从大学毕业。 In the case of using a counting word with disjunctive verbs, it must appear between the parts of this verb, for example. 睡了一次觉 sleep。 Disjunctive verbs are doubled in the AAB form, for example. 洗洗澡 – wash. The classification is carried out within the framework of the syntactic approach, the basis is transitivity - intransitivity. Conclusions on Chapter 2 In the second chapter, an analysis was carried out of the parameters of the classifications of verbs of the modern Chinese language by the following authors: Lu Shusyan, Li Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 90 Jinxi, A. A. Dragunova, S. Ye Yakhontova, V. I. Gorelova, I. S. Melnikova, O. M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Wei Yu, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmaeva. A total of 25 classifications were considered. During the analysis of these classifications, it was revealed that within the framework of the syntactic approach, 22 out of 25 classifications were carried out (which is 88% of the total number of classifications considered). These are the classifications of Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, V. I. Gorelov, I. S. Melnikov, 3 classifications of O.M. Golib, 3 classifications by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Weiyu, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmayev. In five classifications (20%) there are two bases - transitivity-intransitivity, semantics (Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, O. M. Gottlieb). In eight classifications (32%), semantics is used as the basis (classification by Lu Shuxiang, 2 classifications by O. M. Gottlieb, 3 classifications by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen and Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong , T. Kalibek, E Kibirmava). In three cases, the basis is valence - in the classifications of I. S. Melnikov, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Liu Yuehua, Pan Weiyu, Gu Hua (12%). In four classifications (16%), the basis is the transitivity of the verb (classifications by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Lt Yue Hua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua, O.M. Gottlieb, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xin Xiaolong, T. Kalibek , E. Kibirmaeva). In one of the classifications, the bases are semantics and valency (Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao - 4%). I. V. Gorelov has a dual approach - syntactic (base - semantics) and morphological (base - methods of action) (4%). Within the framework of the morphological approach, two classifications of O.M. were made. Gottlieb and one classification by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, accounting for 12% of the total number of classifications considered. The grounds are - Copyright OJSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 91: in two cases (O.M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao) - methods of action (8%), in one case (O M. Gottlieb) – lexical structure (4%). It is obvious that the syntactic approach prevails when classifying verbs. Within the framework of this approach, classifications with two bases predominate - transitivity-intransitivity and semantics, in second place are classifications based on valency. CONCLUSION Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" 92 This work was devoted to the study of approaches and criteria for the classification of verbs of the modern Chinese language in the interpretations of various authors. Studying the theoretical aspects of the classification of verbs in the Chinese language, we examined the forms of systematization of knowledge, classification in the context of history and methodology of science, identified the role of the verb as a category in historical retrospect, and identified general approaches to the classification of verbs. Taking into account the principles and parameters of the considered classifications of verbs, it was concluded that they are divided primarily from the point of view of the basic approach: morphological and syntactic. Within the framework of the morphological approach, the following bases for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language were identified: modes of action and lexical structure. Classifications using this approach are present in the models of the following authors: O.M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao. Within the framework of the syntactic approach, the following bases for the classification of verbs in the modern Chinese language were identified: valency; transitivity-intransitivity; semantics (semantic syntax). Classifications using this approach are present in the models of the following authors: Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunova, S. E. Yakhontova, V. I. Gorelova, I. S. Melnikova, O. M. Goliba, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Weiyu, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmayeva. During the analysis of these classifications, it was revealed that within the framework of the syntactic approach, 22 out of 25 classifications were carried out (which is 88% of the total number of classifications considered). These are the classifications of Lu Shuxiang, Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, V. I. Gorelov, I. S. Melnikov, 3 classifications of O.M. Goliba, 3 classifications Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Li Yue Hua, Pan Weiyu, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 93 Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong, T. Kalibek, E. Kibirmaeva. In five classifications (20%) there are two bases - transitivity-intransitivity, semantics (Li Jinxi, A. A. Dragunov, S. E. Yakhontov, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, O. M. Gottlieb). In eight classifications (32%), semantics is used as the basis (classification by Lu Shuxiang, 2 classifications by O. M. Gottlieb, 3 classifications by Liu Yuehua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua, Zhu Qingming, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen and Gao Huichen, Xing Xiaolong , T. Kalibek, E Kibirmava). In three cases, the basis is valence - in the classifications of I. S. Melnikov, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Liu Yuehua, Pan Weiyu, Gu Hua (12%). In four classifications (16%), the basis is the transitivity of the verb (classifications by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, Lt Yue Hua, Pan Wenyu, Gu Hua, O.M. Gottlieb, Li Dejin, Cheng Meizhen, Gao Huichen, Xin Xiaolong, T. Kalibek , E. Kibirmaeva). In one of the classifications, the bases are semantics and valency (Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao - 4%). I. V. Gorelov has a dual approach - syntactic (base - semantics) and morphological (base - methods of action) (4%). Within the framework of the morphological approach, two classifications of O.M. were made. Gottlieb and one classification by Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao, accounting for 12% of the total number of classifications considered. The grounds are: in two cases (O.M. Gottlieb, Hu Yushu and Fang Xiao) - methods of action (8%), in one case (O.M. Gottlieb) - lexical structure (4%). When classifying verbs, the syntactic approach prevails. Within the framework of this approach, classifications with two bases predominate - transitivity-intransitivity and semantics, in second place are classifications based on valency. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 1. 高慧臣、邢小龙、T. Kalibek, E. Kirimbaev Grammar of modern Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency 94 Chinese [Text]: textbook. manual / edited by 梁云. –新疆：新疆教育出版社, 2011.– 335 p. 2. Golčáková, Bohuslava Valence sloves umístění v ruštině, češtině a němčině = Valence of verbs of placement in Russian, Czech and German: disertační práce mgr. Bohuslava Golčáková: 15 December 2011 / Bohuslava Golčáková . – Plzni, 2011. – 693 s. 3. 郭特立波 Oh. M. 试论现代汉语行为方式的几个问题 [课文] / O. 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Many people remember from the Russian school curriculum what transitive and intransitive verbs are. If anyone has forgotten, let us briefly recall: transitive verbs are verbs that denote an action directed at an object, that is, somehow changing it, while that same object will be in the accusative case, and intransitive ones have a noun or a pronoun that does not need the accusative case. But, unfortunately, the rule for determining which type a particular verb belongs to does not apply to Japanese verbs. And, in principle, there is no rule in the Japanese language that allows verbs to be clearly divided into transitive and intransitive. There are certain patterns that we will introduce you to below. All that remains is to simply remember these rules and verbs by heart and check the dictionary.
Transitional 他動詞 (tado:shi). These verbs denote actions aimed at the object, which becomes the object, and the main focus is on the subject, that is, on the one who performs the action. The action moves from object to subject. In Russian, examples of such verbs can be read, learn, see, solve etc. The complement (in Russian we call it direct) is formalized by the particle を.
subject of action + は/が+ object of action +を+ transitive verb
私は本を読む。 Watashi wa hon wo yomu. I am reading a book.
ドアを閉めます。Doa wo shimemasu. I'll close the door.
手紙を書く。Tеgami wo kaku. Write a letter.
Intransitive 自動詞 (dzido:shi). These are verbs whose action is directed at the subject and cannot go to the object (in Russian such verbs would be, for example, rejoice, teach, accommodate etc.). The noun with such verbs is formed by the particle が.
subject of action + が+ intransitive verb
花が咲く。Hana ga saku. Flowers are blooming.
ドアが開く 。 Doa ga aku. The door is open.
However, intransitive verbs can have a direct object, since the role of the accusative case in Japanese is somewhat different. For example,
空を飛ぶ。Sora wo tobu. Fly across the sky.
The verb 飛ぶ is intransitive, but the noun is supplied with the particle を, since the accusative case denotes space.
The choice of a transitive or intransitive verb depends on the information the speaker wants to emphasize. If the performer (subject) is important, then a transitive verb is used. If attention is paid to the fact of the action being performed and it is not so important who performs it, then an intransitive verb is used. Compare:
富士山を見ます。Fujisan wo mimasu. I see Fuji.
富士山が見えます。Fujisan ga miemasu. Fuji is visible (this is the mountain).
Often both types of verbs form pairs of words with the same root, but with different conjugations. And there are verbs without a pair, that is, only transitive or only intransitive, and also the same verb can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on the case of use. For pairs of verbs, you can trace a certain pattern of formation, which will facilitate the choice.
1. Only intransitive verb:
行く iku – to go,
老いる oiru – to grow old,
痩せる yaseru – to lose weight,
死ぬ sinu – to die,
有る aru – to be
2. Transitive verb only:
打つ utsu – to beat,
食う kuu – there is (roughly)
殺す korosu – to kill
着る kiru – to put on
3. Verb of both types:
開く hiraku – to reveal
増す masu – increase (xia)
笑う warau – to laugh, to ridicule
4. Intransitive and transitive verbs that have a common root:
1st conjugation: ―ある (aru) (intransitive) 2nd conjugation – える (eru) (transitive)
上がる (agaru) to rise 上げる (ageru) to raise (to give)
当てはまる(atehamaru) to apply to something 当てはめる (atehameru) to apply something
集まる (atsumaru) to gather 集める (atsumeru) to gather
終わる (owaru) to end 終える・終わる (oeru/owaru) to end
かかる (kakaru) to hang かける (kakeru) to hang
変わる (kawaru) to change 変える (kaeru) to change
決まる (kimaru) to be decided 決める (kimeru) to decide
閉まる (shimaru) to be closed 閉める (shimeru) to close
止まる (tomaru) stop 止める (tomeru) stop
始まる (hadzimaru) to begin 始める (hadzimeru) to begin
曲がる (magaru to bend, to be bent 曲げる (mageru) to bend
見つかる (mitsukaru to be found 見つける (mitsukeru) to find
当たる (ataru) to hit, to match 当てる (ateru) to guess
下がる (sagaru) to lower 下げる (sageru) to lower
1st conjugation – く、う、る、む (intransitive) 2nd conjugation – ける、える、れる、める (transitive)
開く (aku) to open 開ける (akeru) to open
片付く (katazuku) to be removed 片付ける (katazukeru) to be removed
付く (tsuku) to be attached 付ける (tsukeru) to attach
そろう (sorou) to be picked up そろえる (soroeru) to be picked up
入る (iru) to enter 入れる (ireru) to invest
進む (susumu) to advance 進める (susumeru) to advance
1st conjugation - 3rd base of the verb (intransitive) 2nd conjugation - 1st base + す (transitive)
動く (ugoku) to move 動かす (ugokasu) to move
減る (heru) to decrease 減らす (herasu) to decrease
乾く (kawaku) to dry 乾かす (kawakasu) to dry
湧く(waku) to boil 湧かす (wakasu) to boil
泣く (naku) to cry 泣かす (nakasu) to bring to tears
迷う (mayou) to become confused 迷わす (mayowasu) to puzzle
Root+る (intransitive), transitive root +す (transitive)
返る (kaeru) return 返す (kaesu) return
治る (naoru) to be cured 治す (naosu) to be cured
戻る (modoru) return 戻す (modosu) return
回る (mawaru) spin 回す (mawasu) spin
1st conjugation – す(transitive) 2nd conjugation – れる (transitive)
壊れる (kowareru) to be broken 壊す (kowasu) to break
倒れる (taoreru to capsize 倒す (taosu) to capsize
汚れる (yogoreru) to be dirty, to get dirty 汚す (yogosu) to get dirty
汚れる (kegareru) to get dirty 汚す (kegasu) to get dirty
離れる (hanareru) to move away, separate 離す (hanasu) to separate
崩れる (kudzureru to collapse 崩す (kudzusu to destroy
1st conjugation – あす(asu)、やす (yasu) (transitive) 2nd conjugation – える (eru) (intransitive)
出る (deru) to go out 出す (dasu) to get out
冷える (hieru) to cool 冷やす (hiyasu) to cool
もれる (moreru) to leak もらす (morasu) to shed
燃える (moeru) to burn 燃やす (moyasu) to burn
絶える (taeru) to break off 絶やす (tayasu) to break off
明ける (akeru) to dawn 明かす (akasu) to spend the night without sleep
2nd conjugation – いる (intransitive) 1st conjugation – おす (transitive)
起きる (okiru) to get up 起こす (okosu) to wake up
落ちる (ochiru) to fall 落とす (otosu) to drop
降りる (oriru) to descend 降ろす (orosu) to descend
2nd conjugation - れる (reru) (intransitive) 1st conjugation - る (ru) (transitive)
割れる (wareru) to break 割る (waru) to break
切れる (kireru) to be cut 切る (kiru) to cut
Verbs that do not fit into any of the above types:
消える (kieru) to extinguish 消す (kesu) to extinguish
なくなる (nakunaru) abyss, disappear なくす (nakusu) lose
伸びる (nobiru) to lengthen 伸ばす (nobasu) to lengthen
Other options: (for example, in this case the transitive verb is formed from the motivating form of the verb のる):
乗る (noru) to board a vehicle 乗せる (noseru) to board a vehicle
Make up two sentences with transitive and intransitive verbs in the comments.
To correctly compose a sentence in Japanese, you need to have a good knowledge of cases and their use. Take the course and get a four-week practical course “All about Japanese cases.”
§ 1457. As stated in § 1456, all transitive verbs strongly control wine. case: chop wood, whitewash the ceiling, read a book, love children. Most transitive verbs form the form stradat. participles; for verbs that do not form this form, see
§ 1583, 1588. Intransitive verbs are all verbs that do not control wine. (gen.) case. In most cases, these are verbs whose action is confined to the sphere of the subject and is not directed at the object: the sail turns white; the bird sits on a branch. These verbs do not have the form suffer. participles (for exceptions see § 1583). Some intransitive verbs have an intransitive formant - postfix xia: to gather, to quarrel; other intransitive verbs do not have this formant: turn white, run, stand.
Among the intransitive verbs with the postfix xia, there is a group of verbs in which the postfix xia expresses only the passive meaning (see § 1461). Such, for example, are the verbs: advance, amnesty, amputate, pavement, analyze, announce (special), bacterize (special), embalm, concrete, bandage, boycott, bombard, pamphlet, roll (special), ventilate.
§ 1458. There are transitive verbs that control the name into gender. n. outside the conditions of negation. These are, firstly, some verbs that combine the meaning of achieving a result with the meaning. quantitative: pick flowers, make mistakes, buy books; secondly, verbs in which both gender and wine can be used. p.: wait for a letter and wait for a letter; want gingerbread and gingerbread; beg for alms and alms.
§ 1459. Transitive verbs mean an action directed at an object; it can be an object created (build a house), changed (whitewash a ceiling, chop wood), destroyed (burn letters, break dishes); an influence on an object that does not produce any changes in it: read a book, thank your father, congratulate your sister, praise a student, approve an idea. Transitive verbs are also called sensory perceptions (see a picture, listen to music, feel pain), attitudes (love a person, hate an enemy). Object with such verbs means an object that is perceived, to which the attitude is directed.
Intransitive verbs name a state - physical (sick, sleep) and mental (sad, grieve, rejoice); movement (run, jog, walk, walk, swim, ride, fly, rush); existence (live, be, exist); position in space (stand, sit, lie); identification and formation of a sign (turn white, blush, grow, melt, dry); professional or non-professional occupation (working as a mechanic, teaching, cooking); identifying properties or abilities (to be lazy); ability (to speak French).
The connection between transitivity and intransitivity with the lexical meaning of a verb is also expressed in the fact that polysemous verbs can be transitive in some meanings, and intransitive in others. So, ch. read is transitional and controls wine. p. to value (perceive what is written): read a book, letter; the same verb is intransitive in meaning. (be able to perceive what is written) (Baby is already reading), (engage in reading) (Baby sits and reads). In the latter case, attention is focused on the process itself, which is abstracted from the object; This is the so-called absolute use of the verb. Transitive prefixed verbs owls. species are rarely used absolutely; usually the object is named.
For the relation of transitivity/intransitivity to derivational types of verbs, see the section “Derivational Formation of Verbs”.
a) verbs of the group 进（进，到，出，入，去，来，回）
Are intransitive
Can act as modifiers
Take the complement of time, place, sometimes multiplicity
B) pre-verbs
1 with the seme of space 到，往，上
Takes complement well
2 with the seme of beingness 在
Take place complement
There is also a group of verbs with the meaning of beingness, which are not intransitive, but also take the complement of place 住，生活
C) verbs with a verbal-object type of connection (valency is related to their structure). 睡觉，吃饭– the ideomatics are quite transparent
They became grammaticalized and became transitive
D) verbs with a common theme of movement in space (nepereh)
走，飞，跑，跳
Easily accept complement, usually manage complement through prepositions (于，到)
Verbs with mixed valence
Classification of Li Jin Xi
verbs related to the common theme of moving something in space
挂，放 （你把衣服挂上）
Control direct object
The seme of movement requires complement after itself
2. verbs of giving - attention
Accepts 2 types of additions (addresser-addresser, object)
Control direct and indirect objects
给，送，还，教，买，卖
3．Verbs of thought - feeling - speech
Can control the complement expressed by the included part, i.e. the whole sentence
I highlighted the group of verbs 有 我有书
EXAMINATION TICKET No. 9
Denial of the possibility of distinguishing the vocabulary of the Chinese language into parts of speech and their justification (A. Maspero, Gao Mingkai).
There are theories that deny the presence of parts of speech in CN: the theory of Henri Maspero and Gao
Minkaya. Maspero's theory was syntactic-centric, and morphology
was completely rejected. Maspero based on the classical version of Indo-European
linguistics, in which parts of speech are distinguished based on morphological characteristics
words, i.e. form change, word formation, came to the conclusion that there is no
parts of speech, i.e. in KY there is no morphology in the Indo-European sense of the word. And Gao Mingkai, relying on Kuznetsov’s article on parts of speech, which said that parts of speech are distinguished based on the form of the word, came to the conclusion that because There are no word forms in KY, then there are no parts of speech. Gao Mingkai, having come to the conclusion that there are no parts of speech in KY, switched to words with the meaning of quality, property, attribute, number, etc. He wrote the grammar of these words.
Functional-semantic field of passivity in SKY.
The category of voice is a grammatical category that expresses subject-object relations. The category of collateral is universal, because available in many languages. Voice is the relationship between object and subject, subject and object. There are 2 types of voice: active (the subject correlates the object) and passive (the subject is represented by the object, and the object by the subject). Suffering relationships are marked. In kya, the passive voice marker is 被. Active voice: zero morpheme 被, passive voice: 被+V. Syncretism is a phenomenon when a sign performs two or more heterogeneous functions (被 can be a gramme and a preposition); this phenomenon must be distinguished from score meaning (entering into different homogeneous paradigms in one act). Score – one form is included in all parts. The boy eats porridge (present tense, 3rd person, singular, perfect, active voice). There is no score in kya. Functional-semantic category of passivity: a) morphemic level: 被+V; b) lexical level: prepositions 给, 由, 叫, 让, 为; lexico-syntactic level: sentence of the state 衣服洗了. The meaning of passiveness can be conveyed through the structure 是…的
The theory of opposition identifies 3 types of relationships between system components:
Equipolar opposition presupposes equality of the system components, i.e. they can be interchangeable
Private, when 1 component of the system can replace 1 or several components of the system (the replacing component is “strong”, a member of the opposition, and the replaced one is weak
Gradual involves gradation of members of the opposition according to the degree of expression of something (quality characteristics)
EXAMINATION CARD No. 10
Double classifications of words in the Chinese language and their theoretical justifications (G. von Gabelentz, Liu Shuxiang).
The model of double classifications by parts of speech still exists. Her supporters
G. Gabelents, Ma Jianzhong, Wang Li appeared, who tried to try on
QY facts and the existing metasystem. They accepted the fact that they need to look
grammar in grammar. They ignored the fact that the grammar of parts of speech
should be limited to morphology, i.e. they considered only semantics and function.
Von Gabelenz distinguished word categories and function. 1. word categories - noun, adj., ch.,
number, preposition, etc. (i.e. pure semantics). 2. function - noun. Perform a function
subject, ch. - predicate, rarely subject, rarely object.
Ma Jianzhong identified morphemes of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd levels, said that there are parts of speech,
which are allocated based on meaning.
Level 1 morphemes can be leading in s/s (noun, verb and sometimes adj.).
Level 2 morphemes can be both leading and driven (numbers, and sometimes adj.).
Level 3 morphemes can be predominantly driven (adverbs, conjunctions).
Lexico-grammatical categories of verbs by mode of action.
1.initial (indicates the beginning of the action)
A group of verbs that itself conveys beginning 开始
A group of elements, prefixes that convey by their semantics the beginning of an action
起 （起运，起飞）；开 （开工，开笔，开动）；起来（学起来）；发病
2. inhuative (suggests that a change in property or quality occurs)
发+quality morpheme 发白-turn white (was not white)
3. reciprocal (assumes that the action has 2 subjects who perform the action in relation to each other)
4. repeated (the action is repeated many times, returns to its beginning)
5. softening-restrictive. markers: reduplication with and without multiplicity of action, the action is not very intense 说一说，看一看，散散步
6. dividing (the action divides the object into some fragments)
7. unifying
8. reversible method (the action changes the vector) the subject becomes an object回（回答，回访）
9. durative (marks the semantics of the duration of the action) the semantics can change depending on the semantics of the root 说下去，看下去 - duration, 跳下去，跑下去 - for example down
10. resultative 完（说完了）；好（吃好了，打好了）；上（坐上）with verbs of feelings上 the meaning of the result begins. Fall in love 爱上了（ｌｉａｏ）了 （忘不了；买了） （formative. admission 不）见 (not subductive) 看见；听见
关Absolutely effective 说关了，吃关了
EXAMINATION TICKET No. 11
Classification by parts of speech A.A. Dragunov.
A.A. Dragunov was the first in Russian sinology to give a detailed description of the parts of speech of the modern Chinese language, taking into account the specifics of the grammatical structure of languages of the isolating type. In 1934 he co-authored A Beginning Chinese Grammar with Zhou Songyuan, intended for Chinese learners. In this work, the author first formulated his point of view on the problem of parts of speech in the Chinese language. A.A. Dragunov wrote: “This grammar differs from all existing Chinese grammar textbooks, in which parts of speech are distinguished only by meaning, or it is stated that the parts of speech of the Chinese language are “undefined”, so it is generally impossible to talk about their delimitation. This grammar textbook is consistently based on the idea of parts of speech as a “grammatical classification of words.” A.A. Dragunov continued to develop the theory of the principles of identifying parts of speech in the Chinese language in his subsequent works devoted to the study of grammar.
It is interesting to note that A.A. Dragunov’s approach to the interpretation of the problem of parts of speech was largely theoretically formed under the influence of views on grammatical categories in the Russian language, developed by the famous Russian scientist L.V. Shcherba, to whom he repeatedly refers.
In his fundamental work “Studies on the Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language,” A.A. Dragunov notes two features, taking into account which parts of speech are distinguished in the Chinese language (in the author’s terminology, “lexico-grammatical categories”). Firstly, it is necessary to take into account which member of the sentence the given word acts as; secondly, with what categories of words a given word can or cannot be combined. In this case, it is not a separate syntactic function or type of connection that is taken into account, but the totality of all options. Both of these features can be combined under the general name “grammatical”, hence the term proposed by A.A. Dragunov - “lexico-grammatical categories”.
General scheme of parts of speech in Chinese, developed by A.A. Dragunov, looks like this:
A) I. Name: noun, numeral
II. Predicative: verb, adjective
B) Adverb
Having compared the scheme of parts of speech of the Chinese language with the well-known traditional system of parts of speech of Russian and other Indo-European languages, A.A. Dragunov came to the conclusion that “one of the main differences between the Chinese language and other languages, in particular from Russian, is not that the Russian language has parts of speech, but the Chinese language does not, but that systems of parts speeches in these languages do not coincide with each other."
A.A. Dragunov combined verb and adjective into one category, noting that words of these two classes, unlike words in the name category, can perform the function of a predicate without a connective, and can also be directly connected to aspectual and modal indicators.
“At the same time,” as the author notes, “it is important that numerals, entering the category of a name, have a number of common grammatical features with the category of the predicate, and adjectives included in the category of the predicate, in turn, have a number of common features with nouns.”
Significant words (parts of speech) correlate with function words (according to the terminology of A.A. Dragunov, “particles of speech”). Particles of speech form their own system and, unlike parts of speech, are characterized by the absence of tone and incompatibility with the attributive-nominal suffix 的.
A.A. Dragunov’s justification for the presence of parts of speech in the Chinese language is important not only for Russian Chinese studies, but also for the entire linguistic science. A.A. Dragunov made a very important conclusion that “lexico-grammatical categories lie at the center of the Chinese grammatical system, reflected in the construction of phrases and in different types of sentences. Outside of these categories, it is impossible to understand the structural features of Chinese speech and it would be impossible to present the grammar of the Chinese language."
Theory of A.A. Dragunov was continued and developed by his student and follower S.E. Yakhontov. In an article devoted to parts of speech in general and Chinese linguistics, he notes that “when identifying parts of speech, all essential grammatical features of words, both morphological and word-formative, and syntactic, are taken into account.” S.E. Yakhontov believes that in languages with poorly developed morphology, classification of words taking into account only this feature is practically impossible. The primary criterion when distinguishing parts of speech should be the grammatical criterion.
FSP of temporality in SKY.
A system of multi-level means of language, characterized by the relativity of an action expressed by a verb to the moment of speech, or to any other moment taken as a starting point. Particular categorical meanings are distinguished: 1. past 2. long past.
3. present future. They are distinguished at: morphemic level: 了, 过; lexical level: adverbs of time 经常, 已经, 常常, 就, 马上, 还; lexical-syntactic level: 在…(以)前/后. In grammar there is a general category that defines grammatical tense. These moods are imperative, indicative, conditional, subjunctive. No command. inclinations in the past time. Subjunctive - “if, then.” Unlike the category of aspect, the category of time depends on the modality of the statement (real and unreal). The grammatical category of time is realized within the framework of real modality. Or she gets additional mods. verbs: can, want, must. The center of the FSP of temporality is. corresponding grammatical category. The meaning of time is the relation of the action expressed by the verb to the moment of speech. The category of time is predominantly negative. Dragunov holds the idea that there is a category of time in kya.
Today I was looking through my personal Chinese language library. I found an interesting document in the electronic database, which some people have already become familiar with.
Yanshan University, China
Zhang Xiuhua
Analysis of grammatical errors of foreign students studying Chinese
People whose native languages are different learn Chinese, so the influence of the native language that causes errors in Chinese speech is also not the same. A careful analysis of the influence of mother tongue on error making in Chinese can be useful in learning Chinese. In the process of learning a foreign language, students often construct phrases in a foreign language using stereotypes of their native language. As a result, translation errors often appear. Russian and Chinese have big differences in grammar. Unlike Chinese, where grammatical relations are conveyed using word order, in Russian, grammatical relations are usually conveyed using word form. In Russian, the word order is not so strict; if necessary, rearrangements can be made. When changing the order of words, you only need to preserve the suffixes and endings, and the meaning of the sentence and its structure as a whole will remain unchanged. Because of these features, it is difficult for foreign students learning Chinese to master Chinese grammatical functions and the structure of Chinese syntax.
This article makes an attempt to analyze typical grammatical errors made by foreign students in the process of learning Chinese, which is of great importance for improving the quality and efficiency of learning.
1. To indicate the time period during which an action is performed, the adjunct complement (补语) must always be used. For example: 小李在俄罗斯生活了五年。To indicate the point in time at which an action began or ended, a circumstance (状语) is always used. For example: 八点上课，他八点一刻才到。But foreign students often confuse the conditions for using the complement of adjacency and the circumstances of time. For example: 1) 我差不多五年住在他家楼上。2)他大概来五点。 In example 1) instead of the adjunct adverb, the adverb of time was mistakenly used, in example 2) the adverb of time became the adverb of the adjacency.
The adjacency complement is one of the frequently used and, at the same time, quite specific Chinese grammatical constructions. The addition of adjacency is quite difficult for foreign students to understand; when they study the addition of adjacency, erroneously constructed sentences are very common. For example: 他不问清楚。（他没问清楚）。Result completion (结果补语)。
这种点心不做得好吃。（这种点心做得不好吃）。Addition of degree (程度补语).
对不起，我不能说上来。（对不起，我说不上来）。Addition of opportunity (可能补语)。
来中国以来，我没听懂中文。（来中国以来，我听不懂中文）。Addition of opportunity (可能补语)。
2. A noticeable mistake among foreign students is the use of an intransitive verb as a transitive one, i.e. Instead of using adverbial adverbial preposition, the direct object (宾语) is mistakenly used in preposition. For example: 我着急你妹妹的健康。2）我妹妹失败了大学入学考试。 In these examples, the verbs 着急 (to worry)，失败 (to fail) are mistakenly used as transitive verbs, constructions “你妹妹的健康" and "大学入学考试 " must be separated in the first case by the preposition "为", in the second - "在...中" and, being in preposition before the verbal predicate, play the role of an adverbial circumstance. Similarly, when using the so-called “split words” (离合词), the split words are often mistakenly used as transitive verbs, instead of the required preceding construction with a preposition, using a direct object. For example: 1) 我毕业大学以后...。2)今天领导握手我。 Students make a mistake based on the meaning of “separately fused words”; in their semantic load they are often similar to transitive verbs. in fact, “separate-fused words” are similar in syntactic role to constructions consisting of a predicate verb and a direct object.
3. Students often make a mistake in using constructions with prepositions, confusing the adverbial adverbial and the adjacent object. For example: 1) 2) 我有约会在公司门口. We see that in these examples the prepositional constructions “给我” and “在公司门口” must come before the verbal predicate and act as an adverbial adverbial. It should be noted that the use of “买给我一本书” as a declarative sentence is legal, but this construction will be incorrect for conveying the imperative mood. In this case, you should use "给我买一本书"，"买一本书送给我"，"帮／替我买一本书". Using this sentence as an example, we see that the use of constructions in sentences of different types is not the same, thus studying the context of the whole sentence has not only theoretical, but also practical value.
1. Monosyllabic adjectives in the role of attribute and circumstance, as a rule, do not require function words, while two-syllable adjectives, performing the same syntactic functions, need to be formalized with special function words. Apart from a few examples like “许多”, “好多”. If students do not learn this well, they make mistakes extremely often. For example: 1) 她们两个人是最好朋友。2)她们快乐照着相。Adjectives, as a rule, cannot act as a predicate without other words, when an adjective acts as a predicate, you should usually either use the adverbial degree in preposition, or the adjoining complement of the degree in postposition. Without understanding this, students also often make mistakes. For example: 1)他很用功，所以他的成绩总是好。2)他可能不参加我们的宴会，因为他常常忙。In contrast to the situation when both the adverbial and the complement are absent, there is Another common mistake is duplicating them. For example: 1) 没想到我们这么快就见面了。2)家的花都开了, 都很漂亮极了。3) 他的身体比较胖胖的。The adjective may sometimes express a change in the situation. For example: 萍果红了, 天气暖和了. But in this case, the adjective cannot accept adverbs as a modifier. Failure to understand this also often causes mistakes. For example: 1) 这下很糟糕了。2) 教师您到俄罗斯来教我们, 很辛苦了。3) 昨天我累了，所以今天起得很晚了. But if the sentence uses the adverb "已经", adverbs of degree can be combined with "了". For example: 1)我已经很累了, 你不要再麻烦我了。2)他已经起得很晚了，你比他起得更晚。A sentence containing at the same time an adverb of degree “已”经" and the particle "了", can only serve to indicate the cause of an event or its purpose. But such sentences are never used independently; they are always followed by additional sentences. You should pay attention to these features of grammar related to the meaning of sentences, otherwise mistakes will be made
2. Chinese adverbs of degree can be divided into two large types: adverbs expressing absolute degree and adverbs expressing comparative degree. The first include: 很，挺，非常，十分 and others. To the second: 更 （加），还（更），稍（徽），十分 and others. The so-called adverbs expressing absolute degree are characterized by the fact that, together with the adjective following them, they are relatively independent. For example: 很好，非常漂亮. The so-called “comparative” adverbs are characterized by the fact that they can have relative independence in combination with an adjective only if there is an object of comparison. The comparison object can be contained in the context, or latently contained in the linguistic situation. For example: 他更漂亮了。The meaning of this sentence can be understood either as “He became even more handsome than before” or as “He was more handsome than other people.” Regardless of what meaning is intended, in any case there is an object of comparison. Sometimes the object of comparison is expressed within a sentence. For example: 他比我还要努力。 When expressing the hidden object of comparison, the grammatical function of comparative adverbs of degree is similar to the functions of absolute adverbs of degree. For example: 王丽念得很好，李刚念得更好。From this, students mistakenly conclude that the grammatical functions of these two types are always the same. Because of this, the following errors may appear: 1) 今天比昨天很冷。2) 我这个星期比上个星期忙得很。We believe that it would be correct to say: 今天比昨天冷得多(了)、今天比 If you do not know how to analyze grammar and word usage well during your studies, students will often make mistakes.
1. Foreign students cannot perfectly master such specific Chinese constructions as “把”, “连” and others. Sometimes "把" is used in situations where it is not needed. For example: 1)今天你要是进城，就替我把两张电影票买。3)王同学很想看书, 请你把一本 书借给他吧。In example 1) the verb predicate “帮助” does not mean “to control something (with hands)”, in which case “把” is usually not used. In 2) and 3) examples there are also no conditions for the formation of a construction with “把”. "把" only accepts definite objects after itself, and the objects in these two examples are indefinite. Students often make the mistake of using the direct object and omitting the “把”. For example: 1) 2) 用了一个月时间'我终于这件事完成了。In the data in two examples you only need to insert "把" to get the correct Chinese offers.
2. “连…也/都…” is one of the ways of highlighting. Using this method, unusual, strange situations are expressed. For example: 1)她连母亲都不认识了。Regardless of whether the daughter is unfamiliar with her mother, or the mother is unfamiliar with her daughter, both are unusual situations. Therefore, in cases where events do not go beyond the ordinary, “连”, as a rule, is not used. Therefore, the following example is an error. Example: 他很健康，连什么运动都喜欢。It is normal that a healthy person likes to play sports, so you cannot use the intensifying particle “连” in this sentence, otherwise an awkward situation may be created. The particle "连" is usually used in negative sentences. Therefore, it becomes difficult for students to know when to use “不” and when to use “没”. Basically, "不" is used to describe an unfinished action, and "没" is used to describe a completed action; when necessary, "不" is used to convey the regularity of the action. Let's look at the following examples: 1)今天早上我连饭都不吃上学了。2)他每天连一分钟也没休息工作。In these two examples, “不” and “没” are mixed up. In the first example, you should use "没" because we are talking about a completed action. In the second example, the action is regular, so “不” should be used. Often a verb and a direct object are combined, such as “回头” or “吃饭”, etc., but it is necessary to use “连” before the object, and the negation before the verb. For example: 连饭也没吃，连觉也没睡, this is difficult for foreign students; mistakes are often made in such constructions. For example: 1)他连回头也没有就回山上去了。 2)他连洗澡都不洗就睡觉了。
The phrases “除了…以外, 还／也…” and “都／全” have a significant difference: the former is used to generalize, add, the latter – to highlight. But students master these constructions poorly and often make mistakes in them. For example: 1) 除了春节，什么节日你还知道? 2) 除了狗，我都喜欢猫。3) 除了篮球以外, 我都喜欢任何运动。If you redo the first example “除了春节, 你还知道什么节日”, in principle, there will be no error. However, the emphatic “都/全” cannot be used in combination with a singular head word. It should be said “除了篮球以外, 任何运动我都喜欢。” The addition is placed in the preposition.
Students must know and be able to use all these shades of meaning and the peculiarities of grammar that they cause, excluding linguistic interference from their native language, reducing errors; only then can they really learn Chinese well.
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