I suggest you familiarize yourself with interesting information about the mighty Altai family.
The peoples of the Altai family constitute the second largest group of the country's population. All five of its groups are represented in Russia: Turkic, Tungus-Manchu, as well as Mongolian, Korean and Japanese. The most numerous (over 8% of the population) is Turkic, uniting the Chuvash (whose language is classified as a special subgroup of Turkic languages), Tatars (including Siberian and Astrakhan Tatars, as well as Kryashens, included in the census as part of the Tatars, but distinguished by many researchers into a separate people), Nagaibaks, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Nogais, Kumyks, Karachais, Balkars, Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites, Azerbaijanis, Turks and Meskhetian Turks, Turkmen, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Altaians, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars, Kumandins, Chelkans, Chulyms, Shors, Khakass, Tuvans (including Tuvans-Todzhins), Tofalars, Yakuts, Dolgans.
The most numerous Turkic people and the second largest people in the country are the Tatars, living in the Volga region (primarily in Tataria), the Urals, Western Siberia (Siberian Tatars) and in large cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg). A compact group is formed by the Astrakhan Tatars in the Lower Volga region. The Tatars previously included the Nagaibaks of the Chelyabinsk region. The Chuvash, the fourth largest people in Russia, are concentrated mainly in Chuvashia, where they form the majority of the population. The Bashkirs, who occupy the fifth place in number, are concentrated mainly in their republic. Kazakhs are settled in the regions of Russia adjacent to Kazakhstan, especially in the Astrakhan, Orenburg and Omsk regions.
In the North Caucasus live Nogais (Dagestan, Karachay-Cherkessia and Stavropol Territory), Kumyks (Dagestan) and Karachays (Karachay-Cherkessia) and Balkars (Kabardino-Balkaria) speaking the same Karachay-Balkar language. Similar in language to the North Caucasian Turks are the Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks (Crimean Jews) and Karaites, who previously lived mainly in the Crimea, but now live in many other regions. Azerbaijanis in Russia form a compact group in the south of Dagestan; In recent years, many migrants from Azerbaijan have arrived in Moscow and other cities of the Russian Federation, and the number of Azerbaijanis has almost doubled. Meskhetian Turks live in Ch. arr. in the Krasnodar and Stavropol territories.
Dispersed settlement is typical for Turkmen (in the Stavropol Territory there is a compact group of them - the Trukhmen), Uzbeks, and Kyrgyz, who are not against it. The Turkic peoples of Altai and adjacent areas - Altaians, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars, Kumandins and Chelkans - were united into a single people; Chulyms living in the Tomsk region and Krasnoyarsk Territory were previously included in the Tatars or Khakass. Other Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia: Shors in the Kemerovo region, Khakass in Khakassia, Tuvans in Tuva (including the northeastern group of Tuvans-Todzhins), Tofalars in the Irkutsk region, Soyots in Buryatia (who switched to the Buryat language, as a result of which in previous censuses included in the Buryats. The furthest to the north of the Turkic peoples live the Yakuts in Yakutia and the Dolgans in the Taimyr (Dalgan-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug.
The peoples of the Mongolian group in Russia include Kalmyks, living mainly in Kalmykni, Buryats in Buryatia, Aginsko-Buryat, Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug and Mongols, the most noticeable group of which is in the Irkutsk region.
Even in those regions (in Eastern Siberia, partly in the Far East) live small peoples of the Tungus-Manchu group: Evenki, Ulchi, Nanai, Orochi, Orok, Udege and, conditionally, Tazy. The most widely settled of them are the Evenks, who live in the main. in Yakutia, as well as in the Khabarovsk Territory, Evenki Autonomous District, Buryatia, Amur Region. and etc.
Most Evens live in Yakutia, but are also found in the Magadan region, Khabarovsk Territory, and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The Nanais, Negidals, Ulchis, and Udeges live in the Primorsky and Khabarovsk Territories, and the Ulta live on Sakhalin. The Tazy, who live mainly in the village of Mikhailovka in the Primorsky Territory and are related by origin to the Nanai Udege, now speak Russian as well as Chinese. Representatives of other groups of the Altai family also live in Dalny: Koreans on Sakhalin, Primorsky and Khabarovsk territories.
And the Japanese-Ryukyuan language branches, as well as the Korean language isolate. These languages are spoken in northeast Asia, central Asia, Anatolia and eastern Europe (Turks, Kalmyks). The group is named after the Altai Mountains, a mountain range in central Asia.
These language families share many similar characteristics. The question is their source. One camp, the “Altaicists,” sees the similarities as a result of common descent from a proto-Altaic language spoken several thousand years ago. Another camp, the “anti-Altaists,” views the similarities as a result of interactions between these linguistic groups. Some linguists believe that both theories are balanced; they are called "skeptics".
Another opinion accepts the fact of the existence of the Altai family, but includes only the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu branches. This view was common until the 1960s, but has few adherents today.
According to the most common point of view, the Altaic family includes the Turkic languages, Mongolian languages, Tungus-Manchu languages, and, in the maximum version, also the Korean language and the Japanese-Ryukyuan languages (the relationship with the last two groups is hypothetical).
The name “Altai” indicates the supposed ancestral home of the family (Altai), which, however, according to the latest data, was located further south, in the territory of what is now Northern China (Manchuria - Hongshan Culture). Until the beginning of AD. e. Altai was inhabited by Indo-European tribes (Pazyryk culture). The “Altaians” began to explore Siberia during the Glazkov culture (2nd millennium BC). They invaded Japan in the Yayoi era (1st millennium BC).
In modern macrocomparative studies, the Altai family is included in the Nostratic macrofamily. The assumption about the special affinity of the Altai languages with the Uralic languages (the hypothesis of the Ural-Altaic family of languages has existed since the 18th century) can be removed within the framework of the Nostratic theory; The specific convergences of the Ural and Altai languages in the field of vocabulary, word formation and typology are explained by similar habitats and numerous contacts at different chronological levels.
Phonological systems of modern times. Altaic languages have a number of common properties. Consonantism: restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, restrictions on the combinability of phonemes, a tendency towards an open syllable. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength-weakness or sonority-dullness; glottalization does not occur. There are no phonologically relevant postvelars (uvulars in Turkic languages are allophones of velars for back vowels). These systems are a development of the next system of phonemes, restored for the Proto-Altaic language.
Proto-Altai consonantism is reconstructed in the following form:
| p h | p | b | m | ||||
| t h | t | d | n | s | z | r | l |
| č h | č | ǯ | ń | š | j | ŕ | ĺ |
| k h | k | g | ŋ |
Vocalism included 5 monophthongs (*i, *e, *u, *o, *a) and 3 diphthongs (*ia, *io, *iu), which may have been prefixed monophthongs: *ä; *ö; *ü. Diphthongs occur only in the first syllable. For Proto-Altaic, the absence of synharmonicity is restored. The vocalism of most Altai languages is characterized by synharmonism of various types; synharmonic systems are reconstructed at least for the Proto-Turkic and Proto-Mongolian languages. Some languages have long vowels, as well as rising diphthongs (in the Tungus-Manchu, some Turkic languages; for a certain period of development of the Mongolian languages).
There is practically no phonologically significant force stress in the Altaic languages. The languages of the Japanese-Korean branch are characterized by systems with musical stress; the Proto-Korean-Japanese tone system is being reconstructed. Tone and phonation prosodic differences are noted in individual Turkic languages. For the proto-language, apparently, the opposition of vowels by long-shortness (according to the Turkic-Tungus-Manchurian correspondences) and by tone (high-low, according to the Japanese-Korean correspondences) was relevant.
General trends in phonetic changes in the Altaic languages are a tendency to establish synharmonism of various types, complex positional changes, reduction of the phonological system in anlaut, compression and simplification of combinations, leading to a decrease in the length of the root. This caused a sharp increase in the number of homonymous roots, compensated by the fusion of roots with affixal elements, which makes it difficult to identify ancestral roots, establish their meanings and compare them within the framework of the Altai theory.
In the field of morphology, the Altaic languages are characterized by agglutination of the suffix type. There are also certain typological differences: if Western Turkic languages are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then in Mongolian morphology we find a number of fusional processes, as well as not only morphonological, but also morphological distributions of affixes, that is, a clear movement in the direction of inflection. The Eastern Turkic languages, which came under Mongolian influence, also developed a powerful fusion.
Grammatical categories of names in the Altai languages of the mainland branch - number, accessory, case; in Japanese and Korean - case. Number affixes are characterized by great diversity and a tendency to string together several plural indicators within one word form and then glue them together into one; many indicators reveal material similarities with the suffixes of collective names, from which they apparently originate. The easy transition of the meaning of the affix from derivational collective to grammatical plurality is associated with the nature of the use of the plural in the Altai languages: it is expressed only in a marked case, sometimes only lexically. For Proto-Altaic, a large number of collective affixes with various shades of meaning are restored.
Affixes of belonging in the Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages go back to postpositive personal pronouns, and in the Turkic languages they form a special system (possibly also going back to personal pronouns); the special affix of belonging to the 3rd person -ni, which is not reducible to the pronouns of the 3rd person, is raised to the proto-Altai state. In the Tungus-Manchu languages, 1st person plural affixes are distinguished, like personal pronouns, inclusiveness and exclusivity. In all three mainland families, the 3rd person form is used to express certainty.
Almost all Altai case systems are characterized by a nominative case with a zero indicator; the zero case form is also used for many postpositions. This form is also restored for the proto-language. The affixes of the accusative, genitive, partitive, dative and instrumental cases are also reconstructed. There are a number of common indicators with localization, directionality and similar meanings, partially involved in languages in nominal paradigms, partially manifested in adverbial formations. These indicators are often attached to each other and to the case affixes of the “main” cases, initially to express shades of localization-directive meanings; then subtle differences are erased and etymologically complex case indicators arise.
The personal pronouns of the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages show significant overlap (cf. the difference between direct (bi-) and indirect (m-) stems in 1st person pronouns; the stem of the 2nd person pronoun in Mongolian languages (*t- > n-) differs from Turkic and Tungus-Manchu (s-). In Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu, inclusive and exclusive pronouns of the 1st person are different. Possessive pronouns are derived from personal pronouns; possessive pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns are the same formally and semantically in the Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages; in the Turkic languages there is an ancient system (there are three degrees of range). In Korean there are common demonstrative pronouns i (*e) 'this' and te with the Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages. 'that'. Two interrogative pronouns are restored with a personal/non-personal opposition. In Mongolian languages there is a special category of place verbs (etymologically - verbs derived from demonstrative and interrogative pronouns); This category also includes the negative verb e-, common to the Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages.
Contrary to the often expressed opinion, the system of common numerals from 1 to 10 is reconstructed for the Altai languages.
In the Altai verb, two original verbal forms are found: the imperative mood (in the form of a pure stem) and the desirable mood (in -s-). Other finite forms etymologically represent various verbal names, standing in the predicate position, or formalized by predicative affixes (usually expressing person and number). The indicators of these verbal names (which now play the role of aspectual-temporal and fulfillment) show significant material similarity, but their original semantics and use are greatly obscured by intrasystem changes. The category of voice in the Altai languages is rather word-formative; with general structural similarity, it retains few materially identical indicators. The Turkic and Tungus-Manchu languages are characterized by the inclusion of the category of negation in the verbal paradigm, but its indicators do not coincide. There are several common modal indicators. Personal agreement of verb forms is represented in inner circle languages; its indicators ultimately go back to personal pronouns. In Japanese and Korean, the developed category of politeness acts as a functional analogue of personal agreement.
Altaic languages demonstrate a significant number of common derivational indicators, mainly nouns from verbs and verbs from nouns.
Altaic languages are languages of the nominative system with a predominant word order SOV and preposition of definition. In the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages there are izafet constructions with a possessive indicator for the word being defined. The existential way of expressing possession is mainly used (that is, “I have” and not “I have”), except in Mongolian, where possession is expressed using a special adjective in -taj (such as “I am a horse”; adjectives of possession and non-possession are and in other mainland Altai languages). In Japanese and Korean sentences, actual division is necessarily formally expressed. The term “Altai type of complex sentence” is associated with the preference given by Altai languages to absolute constructions with a verb in a non-finite form over subordinate clauses.
The emergence of scientific altaic studies is associated with the name of B. Ya. Vladimirtsov, G. J. Ramstedt and N. N. Poppe. G. Ramstedt substantiated the kinship not only of the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages, but also of Korean. Subsequently, R. Miller put forward, and S. A. Starostin finally substantiated the belonging to the same family of the Japanese language. A number of researchers (A. M. Shcherbak, A. Vovin, S. Georg, G. Derfer, J. Jankhunen) consider the relationship of the Altai languages unproven, leaving only the areal and typological status for the Altai community. The main complaints arise from the vocabulary introduced into the Altai comparison: it is argued that all Altai lexical comparisons can be explained by borrowings from different times and that the words that are common to the Altai languages are precisely the words that in their meaning belong to the “permeable” parts of the lexical system. The real basis of this view is as follows: the comparative procedure in the Altaic languages actually has to face the disturbing factor of repeatedly renewed close contacts between the Turks, Mongols and Tungus-Manchus, as a result of which the vocabulary of any mainland Altaic language is full of borrowings from other Altaic languages. Supplementing the Altai comparison with Japanese and Korean significantly increases the reliability of the lexical comparison, reducing the likelihood of lexical matches being explained by early contact.
| Language families of Eurasia | ||
|---|---|---|
| Language families | Abkhaz-Adyghe Austroasiatic Austronesian Andaman Dravidian Yenisei Indo-European Kartvelian Mongolian Miao-Yao Nakh-Dagestan Semitic Sino-Tibetan Tai-Kadai Tungus-Manchu Turkic Ural Chukchi-Kamchatka Shompen Eskimo-Aleutian Yukaghir Japanese-Ryukyuan |  |
| Isolated languages | ||
ALTAI LANGUAGES, a macrofamily of languages spoken by different peoples living in western, central and northern Asia, as well as Eastern Europe. 39 Altaic languages are spoken in total approx. 200 million people. The macrofamily includes three commonly distinguished families: Tungus (9 languages, less than 200 thousand speakers), Mongolian (8 languages, about 6 million speakers) and Turkic (21 languages, about 115 million speakers). Currently, it has also been proven that the Korean and Japanese languages belong to the Altai family.
Tungusic-Manchu languages are spoken in northern and eastern Siberia, as well as in northeastern China. The family includes Manchu (now almost extinct), Evenki, Even, Negidal, Nanai, Ulch, Orok, Oroch and Udege.
Mongolian languages are spoken primarily in Mongolia, but also in parts of Russia, China and Afghanistan. The most widely spoken of these languages is Mongolian, the official language of Mongolia and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (PRC). Other languages of the family are Kalmyk, Buryat, Oirat, Mughal, Dagur, Mongolian, Dongxiang, Baoan and Shira-Yugur languages.
Turkic languages are widespread over vast areas from the Balkans to Eastern Siberia ( cm. TURKIC LANGUAGES).
According to most scholars, the Altaic languages can be combined into one macrofamily on the basis of systematic phonetic correspondences that were established after loanwords were excluded from consideration. In addition, the Altaic languages are characterized by fundamental structural similarities. In all languages, enclitics and suffixes that are similar in appearance often exhibit the same function. The relationship between the Turkic and Mongolian languages is closer than between both of these groups and the Tungusic languages, which, however, may be due to close contacts between the Turkic and Mongolian languages during various periods of their history. At the same time, all three of these families are closer to each other than any of them is to Korean and Japanese.
An often mentioned structural feature common to the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages is synharmonism (similarity of vowels within one word). If at the base (first part) of a word there are front vowels (like i or e), all suffixes appearing in the variants give front vowels (such as e, ö, ü ); if the stem has back vowels ( a, o, u), then the suffixes also contain back vowels. In the Tungusic languages, synharmonism of a slightly different type is presented (assimilation not by row, but by rise). In all Altai languages, the initial syllable of a word cannot begin with a combination of several consonants.
At the grammatical level, the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages are characterized by the absence of the category of gender and the optional expression of the category of number (unlike the Indo-European and Semitic languages); using a pure stem as the imperative mood for verbs and the nominative case for nouns; the almost complete absence of prefixes with the active use of sequences of suffixes (in a process usually called agglutination) to create lexical and grammatical contrasts; the prevalence of postpositions over prepositions. At the syntactic level, these languages are characterized by a relationship of subordination, when the definition precedes the defined, the dependent member precedes the dominant one, the subject precedes the predicate, and the adverb precedes the verb; verbs often come at the end of sentences.
The Altai language family is part of the Nostratic macrofamily, within which it is characterized by particular closeness to the Uralic and Dravidian families.
Official history says that the Turkic language arose in the first millennium when the first tribes belonging to this group appeared. But, as modern research shows, the language itself arose much earlier. There is even an opinion that the Turkic language came from a certain proto-language, which was spoken by all the inhabitants of Eurasia, as in the legend of the Tower of Babel. The main phenomenon of Turkic vocabulary is that it has practically not changed over the five thousand years of its existence. The ancient writings of the Sumerians will still be as understandable to the Kazakhs as modern books.
The Turkic language group is very numerous. If you look territorially, peoples who speak similar languages live like this: in the west the border begins with Turkey, in the east with the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China, in the north with the East Siberian Sea and in the south with Khorasan.
Currently, the approximate number of people who speak Turkic is 164 million, this number is almost equal to the entire population of Russia. At the moment, there are different opinions on how the group of Turkic languages is classified. We will consider further which languages stand out in this group. Main ones: Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Uyghur, Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash, Balkar, Karachay, Kumyk, Nogai, Tuvan, Khakass, Yakut, etc.
We know that the Turkic group of languages has spread very widely across Eurasia. In ancient times, peoples who spoke this way were simply called Turks. Their main activities were cattle breeding and agriculture. But one should not perceive all modern peoples of the Turkic linguistic group as descendants of an ancient ethnic group. After thousands of years, their blood mixed with the blood of other ethnic groups of Eurasia, and now there are simply no indigenous Turks.
The ancient peoples of this group include:
The Turkic group of languages has a very complex classification. Or rather, each historian offers his own version, which will differ from the other with minor changes. We offer you the most common option:
On their territory, the local population simply calls themselves Sakha. Hence the name of the region - the Republic of Sakha. Some representatives also settled in other neighboring areas. The Yakuts are the easternmost of the peoples of the Turkic linguistic group. Culture and traditions were borrowed in ancient times from tribes living in the central steppe part of Asia.
A region has been designated for this people - the Republic of Khakassia. The largest contingent of Khakass is located here - about 52 thousand people. Several thousand more moved to live in Tula and the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
This nation reached its greatest numbers in the 17th-18th centuries. Now this is a small ethnic group that can only be found in the south of the Kemerovo region. Today the number is very small, about 10 thousand people.
Tuvinians are usually divided into three groups, differing from each other in some dialect features. They inhabit the Republic. This is a small eastern of the peoples of the Turkic linguistic group, living on the border with China.
This nation has practically disappeared. According to the 2010 census, 762 people were found in several villages of the Irkutsk region.
The Eastern dialect of Tatar is the language that is considered to be the national language of the Siberian Tatars. This is also a Turkic group of languages. The peoples of this group are densely settled throughout Russia. They can be found in rural areas of the Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk and other regions.
A small group living in the northern regions of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They even have their own municipal district - Taimyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky. Today, there are only 7.5 thousand representatives of the Dolgans left.
The Turkic group of languages includes the Altai lexicon. Now in this area you can freely get acquainted with the culture and traditions of the ancient people.
Today there are six separate independent states whose nationality is the indigenous Turkic population. First of all, these are Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. Of course, Türkiye and Turkmenistan. And do not forget about Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, which belong to the Turkic language group in exactly the same way.
The Uighurs have their own autonomous region. It is located in China and is called Xinjiang. Other nationalities related to the Turks also live in this territory.
The Turkic group of languages primarily includes Kyrgyz. Indeed, the Kyrgyz or Kyrgyz are the most ancient representatives of the Turks who lived in Eurasia. The first mentions of the Kirghiz are found in the 1st millennium BC. e. Throughout almost its entire history, the nation did not have its own sovereign territory, but at the same time managed to preserve its identity and culture. The Kyrgyz even have the concept of “ashar”, which means joint work, close cooperation and unity.
The Kirghiz have long lived in sparsely populated steppe areas. This could not but affect some character traits. These people are extremely hospitable. When a new person arrived in the settlement before, he told news that no one had heard before. For this, the guest was rewarded with the best treats. It is still customary to honor guests sacredly.
The Turkic language group could not exist without the most numerous Turkic people, living not only in the state of the same name, but throughout the world.
The folk morals of the Kazakhs are very harsh. From childhood, children are raised under strict rules and taught to be responsible and hardworking. For this nation, the concept of “dzhigit” is the pride of the people, a person who defends the honor of his fellow tribesman or his own at all costs.
In the appearance of the Kazakhs, a clear division into “white” and “black” can still be traced. In the modern world, this has long lost its meaning, but remnants of old concepts are still preserved. The peculiarity of the appearance of any Kazakh is that he can simultaneously look like both a European and a Chinese.
The Turkic group of languages includes Turkish. Historically, Turkey has always cooperated closely with Russia. And these relations were not always peaceful. Byzantium, and later the Ottoman Empire, began to exist simultaneously with Kievan Rus. Even then there were the first conflicts for the right to rule the Black Sea. Over time, this enmity intensified, which largely influenced the relationship between the Russians and the Turks.
Turks are very peculiar. First of all, this can be seen from some of their features. They are hardy, patient and completely unpretentious in everyday life. The behavior of the representatives of the nation is very cautious. Even if they are angry, they will never express their dissatisfaction. But then they can harbor anger and take revenge. In serious matters the Turks are very cunning. They can smile in your face, but plot behind your back for their own benefit.
The Turks took their religion very seriously. Severe Muslim laws prescribed every step in the life of a Turk. For example, they could kill an unbeliever and not be punished for it. Another feature associated with this feature is a hostile attitude towards non-Muslims.
Turkic-speaking peoples are the largest ethnic group on Earth. The descendants of the ancient Turks settled across all continents, but most of them live in the indigenous territory - in the Altai Mountains and in the south of Siberia. Many peoples managed to preserve their identity within the borders of independent states.
Turkic-speaking group: (Karachais, Balkars, Kumyks, Nogais)
Mongolian language group (Kalmyks)
The language classification is based on two criteria: language and ethnicity. Language in general is the basis of human culture, since it is a purely human way of transmitting information through a system of specially produced symbols. The emergence of language went in parallel with the development of culture and the formation of modern man. The ethnological meaning of linguistic classification is that peoples belonging to the same linguistic family usually have common elements in their material and spiritual culture.
Among the various types of classifications of ethnic groups, linguistic (linguistic) classification is perhaps the most important, since it gives the most specific idea of the ethnic kinship of the respective peoples, of the common origins of a particular culture. The ethnic differentiation of humanity is complex. In this regard, when forming an ethnic picture of the world, linguistic classification takes into account the strict linguistic kinship between peoples and the ethnic identity of each of them.
Multilingualism- the use of several languages within a certain social community (primarily the state); the use by an individual (group of people) of several languages, each of which is selected in accordance with a specific communicative situation. It is customary to distinguish between “individual” and “national” multilingualism, the latter being the object of sociolinguistic study. On the largest scale, multilingualism is characteristic of multinational states (USSR, USA, India, Nigeria, etc.). In conditions of multilingualism, communicative forms (languages, dialects, dialects, social and professional jargons, etc.) form a functional hierarchy, for example: 1) narrow local means of intra-group communication (“home” languages), 2) local means of intergroup everyday communication (so called the language of the “bazaar” in multi-tribal rural communities of Asia and Africa), 3) the language of an administrative (or national) region, 4) the language of a multinational region, 5) a national language (can also be “supranational”, i.e. international)
Multilingualism is most often realized in the form bilingualism (bilingualism); Cases of widespread proficiency in three or more languages are relatively rare. For multilingualism (bilingualism), the functional status of the languages used and the degree of their proximity - genetic or typological - are essential. On the basis of multilingualism, interference and convergence of languages occur, and linguistic unions are formed.
First of all, of course, you should turn to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 68), which clearly states:
1. The state language of the Russian Federation throughout its entire territory is Russian.
2. Republics have the right to establish their own state languages. In state government bodies, local self-government bodies, and state institutions of the republics, they are used along with the state language of the Russian Federation.
3. The Russian Federation guarantees all its peoples the right to preserve their native language and create conditions for its study and development.
5. Protection and support of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation contributes to the multiplication and mutual enrichment of the spirit of culture of the peoples of the Russian Federation.
7. The obligation to use the state language of the Russian Federation should not be interpreted as a denial or derogation of the right to use the state languages of the republics located within the Russian Federation and the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation.
Main directions of language policy of the Russian Federation. Basically, the language sphere is regulated by two legal acts - the Law “On the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation” of 1991 and the Law “On the state language of the Russian Federation”. The institutionalization of the filtration-protectionist model of language policy in Russia occurred with the adoption of the Law in 2005 "About the state language". Thus, according to the Law, the use of words and expressions that do not comply with the norms of the modern Russian literary language is not allowed, with the exception of foreign words that do not have commonly used analogues in the Russian language.
Another no less effective instrument of state language policy has become Federal target program "Russian language", aimed at stimulating the further development of the Russian language in Russia and beyond.
The scale of the functioning of the Russian language allows us to highlight the following priority areas within the framework of the designated program: the Russian Federation, the CIS and Baltic countries, as well as non-CIS countries.
The North Caucasus is a very linguistically rich region, which is distinguished by its multinationality (more than 50 autochthonous peoples) and extraordinary linguistic fragmentation. With all the diversity of languages of the North Caucasus, in modern times a rather difficult situation has developed: almost all languages of the North Caucasus have been recognized by UNESCO as endangered. This list includes twenty languages of the Nakh-Dagesgan group: Andean, Archa, Akhvakh, Bagvalin, Bezhta, Agul, Botlikh, Godoberin, Gunzib, Karata, etc. - and two languages of the Abkhaz-Adyghe group: Abaza and Pshtsug. and some Caucasian peoples (Abazas, Shapsugs) are included in the “Unified List of Indigenous Minorities of the Russian Federation”
An urgent task in the North Caucasus at present is the protection of the linguistic and cultural diversity of the peoples of this region. Urgent tasks for the preservation and development of endangered languages include solving issues of language construction: studying the real possibilities of expanding the social functions of national state languages, developing their literary norms, publishing textbooks and teaching aids, the text content of which would reflect the spiritual heritage and linguistic picture of the world of the peoples of the North Caucasus, their moral ideals and ethnopsychology. Modern language policy is associated with the traditions of its implementation in the North Caucasus region and the country as a whole.
Question No. 14 Ethno-confessional characteristics of the peoples of the South of Russia
The concepts of ethnicity and religion.
Traditional beliefs and stages of penetration of world religions into the South of Russia.
Specifics of Islam in the North Caucasus, tariqas.
Religious separatism.
"North Caucasian Wahhabism".
The Tibeto-Mongolian form of Buddhism is Lamaism among the Kalmyks.
Orthodoxy in the South of Russia. Non-traditional religious associations in the South of Russia.
1. Ethnicity- historically established in def. Terrestrial and stable set of people who have common and stable elements of maternal culture, a common language, traditions, spiritual values, a common ethnopsychic make-up, as well as an awareness of their unity and difference from all other cultural groups Confession- a system containing the following components: Religious consciousness (including the doctrine of a higher spiritual principle) Cultural activity, the function of which is to maintain the believer’s attachment to the confession, to oblige and develop the constancy of religious feelings
2. . In the south of Russia, all three world religions are clearly represented: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.
3. It is believed that the southern part of Russia is the cradle of Christianity in our country. It appeared in the beginning. 1st century AD Also, from the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. AD in Georgia, Armenia and Kavk Albania Soon, at the end of the 3rd century, Armenia, Georgia and Kavk Albania (now North Azerb) became the first countries in the world with Christ as their state. religion. In Russian Orthodox population the church uses it means. trust. However, most of them have little understanding of dogma and do not observe rituals. The fact is that during the years of Soviet power, Orthodoxy, like other confessions, and even to a greater extent, was subjected to persecution and repression.
4. The second largest group, but uniting the majority of the indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus, is the Muslims. confession. Islam is a world monotheistic religion. Originated in the Hijaz (at the beginning of the 7th century) The founder of Islam is Muhammad (Muhammad, Mohammed) (570?-632) The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran, the Second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah. The majority of Muslims in the North Caucasus are Sunnis. Also in Islam there is a mystical and ascetic teaching - Sufism. Every person should strive to renounce his mother self in order to merge with the Divine. This is achieved by passing through four stages: 1) Sharia - law, exact fulfillment of religious instructions, 2) tariqa - path, suppression of the will and love of God, 3) marifat - knowledge of the unity of the universe in God, 4) haqiqat - truth, complete immersion in God.
The emergence of extremist movements in the UK "North Caucasian Wahhabism"(Dagestan, Chechnya, Karachay, Balkaria, Nogais). Purpose of Wahhabism- to tie together, to create a certain integrity, although the source material may not be feudal lands and clans, but ethnic groups and subethnic groups. Wahhabism appeared and gradually began to spread to Sev Kav. There are 2 main centers of Wahhabism here - RD and KCR. These republics are multinational. Two wings can be distinguished among the Wahhabis - reformist and radical. They have one primary goal: the Islamization of the entire population of the region and, ultimately, the establishment of an independent Islamic state throughout the North Caucasus.
Buddhism. This religion became most widespread in the Republic of Kazakhstan, and adopted a regular form of Buddhism - Lamaism. Lamaism arose in Tibet in the 18th century. In the Russian Federation it has followers, mainly in Buryatia, the Republic of Kazakhstan and Tuva. The beginning of the formation of Lamaism in Kalmykia dates back to the 17th-18th centuries.
Orthodoxy in the South of Russia represented by the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1701, the Azov diocese was established, and since 1718, the parishes of the Don Army were subordinated to the Voronezh diocese. In 1777-78. The government resettles several Don Cossack villages to the Kuban, and in 1792 - former Cossacks. The territories of the Southern Republic were subordinated to the Ekaterinoslav diocese, and later to the Astrakhan diocese. In 1829, they became part of the newly formed Novocherkassk and Georgievsk (Don) diocese. At present, in the Southern Republic, the Russian Orthodox Church has 7 dioceses, which are among the largest in the church: Stavropol, uniting the parishes of the Stavropol Territory and 6 North Caucasian republics - Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Chechnya, Ingushetia and Dagestan; Maykop and Adygei - parishes of Adygea; Ekaterinodar and Kuban - Krasnod parishes. the edges; Rostov and Novocherkassk are the parishes of the Rostov region, as well as the Volgograd, Astrakhan-Enotaevsk, Elista and Kalmyk Dioceses. There are religious institutions. education, both lower - Sunday schools (205 in the region), and higher levels - Stavropol Theological Seminary, Rostov Diocesan Theological School. In the south of Russia, Orthodox printed publications are published - the monthly newspaper “Orthodox Voice of Kuban” (Krasnodar) and “Tserkovny Vestnik” (Rostov-on-Don), published in small circulations.
6. Netrad rel obed:
Neo-Christian(Protestant organizations, Vassarion Church)
Neorientalist(Hare Krishnas)
Neopagan(Slavic-Aryan Vedas)
Space(belief in cosmic energy)
Satanist(generally rat houses, Voodoo society)
Doukhobors. Followers of one of the forms of old Russian sectarianism, “spiritual fighters of Christ.” The movement arose in Ukraine and central Russia, then penetrated into the lands of the Don Army. Its adherents reject the hierarchy and ritualism of the Orthodox Church. While they accept the basic ideas of the Bible, they do not consider it “holy scripture.” Currently There are about 3 thousand Doukhobors living in the Rostov Region and Sev Kav. -Jehovah's Witnesses-Ilintsy. Russian sect that arose in the Urals. God should be worshiped under his true name, Jehovah. The teachings and religious practices of Jehovah's Witnesses combine motifs from Christianity, Judaism and other religions.
Question No. 15 Traditional culture of the peoples of the Republic of Yugoslavia.
Traditional culture: concept, essence, typological differences.
Traditionalism as a factor of sociocultural identification.
General and special in the traditional material and spiritual culture of the peoples of the region.
Masculine type of culture.
Labor and family and marriage traditions and rituals: mutual assistance, kunachestvo, hospitality, veneration of elders, family solidarity.
Epics of the peoples of the South of Russia.
Characteristic features and main stages in the formation of the literatures of the peoples of the South of Russia.
Traditional folk art.
Peculiarities of mutual influence of ethnic cultures of the peoples of the region
1. Traditional culture– a type of culture characterized by social regulation, adaptation to the environment and human development based on the reproduction of stereotypes of behavior and thinking (traditions), the priority of “maintaining” (repetition) of habitual norms of behavior over the rational-volitional principle. Accordingly, traditional culture this is a culture that ensures human adaptation to the natural environment and changes (development) of the person himself, primarily based on tradition
