Contact methods: The essence of these methods is to directly study a sample of the medium under study (water, air or soil).
Chromatographic method- today is one of the most common methods for analyzing air and water samples.
Chromatography is a method of separating and analyzing a gas or liquid mixture (for example, a sample of polluted air or water), based on the distribution of the different components of the mixture when passing it through a solid sorbent. The analysis is carried out using a special device - chromatograph, into which a test tube containing the test sample is placed. At the output of the chromatograph, a chromatographic curve is obtained, the height and area of the peaks on which reflect the concentration of various pollutants.
Photometric method is based on a comparison of the optical densities of the test liquid (for example, water from a reservoir) and the control liquid (pure water). This method is used to control the quality of drinking water.
Polarographic method consists in placing electrodes into the substance under study and passing a current through them. By the nature of the polarization of the working electrode, the presence and concentration of impurities of various metals in a given sample are judged; This method is mainly used to detect impurities of copper, lead, cadmium and zinc.
Conductometric method consists of studying the electrical conductivity and dielectric constant of a sample of the environmental component under study. The method is used to identify pollutants in a liquid medium (drinking water, etc.).
Coulometric method is based on measuring the amount of electrical energy expended to carry out electrochemical processes in a given sample. The method allows you to detect the presence of both inorganic and organic pollutants (petroleum products, etc.) in the sample.
Potentiometric method is based on a change in the potential of the electrode depending on the physical and chemical processes occurring in the sample of the environmental component. Often used to determine the pH value and the concentration of nitrogen compounds.
Colorimetric method is based on the study of how the light flux passed through a sample of the substance under study changed and weakened. The method is used to analyze air pollution.
Refractometric method is based on the study of how the selective refraction of a light flux incident on the surface of a sample of the test substance changes. The method allows you to identify impurities of petroleum products in the test sample.
Luminescent method consists of irradiating a sample of the environmental component under study with radiation of a certain wavelength (for example, X-rays). After this, various substances present in the sample begin to emit response radiation in different zones of the spectrum.
Thermographic method consists of studying how a sample of the studied environmental component changes when heated. The change in electrical resistance of a given sample when it is heated can also be studied.
Ionometric method is based on placing ion-selective electrodes reversible to negative and positive ions into the sample of the environmental component under study. The method is used to detect a wide range of pollutants: from nitrates and nitrites to heavy metals.
Titration method consists of studying the interaction of a solution of the test substance with an indicator solution. The method is widely used in water quality studies to determine the concentrations of inorganic and organic pollutants, alkalinity and hardness.
Non-contact (remote) methods: Non-contact or remote monitoring methods are based on the use of probing fields to study the monitored object. Such fields can be radio waves of various ranges, electromagnetic radiation, acoustic or gravitational fields. The main advantage of probing fields over contact research methods is that these fields make it possible to study the monitored object regardless of the distance to which it is removed. Therefore, the use of probing fields has made it possible to monitor such objects that are difficult to reach for direct contact, such as the ozone layer, ionosphere, the Sun, etc. Non-contact monitoring of the object under study can be performed in 2 ways: passive and active. At passive control the probing field emanating from the object itself is received (for example, when monitoring the Sun, the radiation emitted by it is recorded on special photographic films). When active control the probing field is created by some extraneous source and is directed to the monitored object. Next, the field reflected or re-emitted by the object is received. A type of active control is reflex control, when both transmission and reception of the probing field are performed simultaneously. In non-contact control, observations of the object under study are carried out using radar and optical-electronic devices (radars, radiometers, aerial cameras, etc.) installed on board an airplane, helicopter, space satellite or series of satellites. Nowadays, non-contact methods of environmental monitoring are used very widely, thanks to the constant improvement of equipment and software.
Non-contact methods of atmospheric monitoring. Currently, lidar (laser) atmospheric sensing is widely used for these purposes. With its help, parameters such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, wind direction and speed, and the concentration of pollutants in the form of gases and aerosols in the atmosphere are observed. For surveillance, radars with a range of up to 500 km are used. In meteorological monitoring, satellite systems are used for daily weather forecasts, since to form such a forecast it is necessary to cover an area of 1500 km (due to the high speed of movement of surface air masses). When monitoring local air masses (territorial coverage of no more than 1-2 km), acoustic and radio-acoustic control methods are used to monitor fluctuations in air temperature, changes in wind speed, and determine the upper limit of fog. This principle is used to monitor the weather at lighthouses, airports, etc.
Non-contact methods for monitoring surface waters. In this case, the main observation parameter is radio brightness of water- the ability of water to emit radio waves in a wide range. Observations of changes in the radio brightness of a particular water body allow us to estimate the following parameters:
Excitement (millimeter wave radio waves are used);
Temperature (radio waves in the centimeter range are used);
Salinity of water (radio waves of the decimeter range are used);
Pollution of the water surface with oil (radio waves with a wavelength of 360 - 460 nm are used when monitoring pollution with light fractions of oil, and radio waves with a wavelength of about 500 nm when monitoring pollution with heavy fractions).
Non-contact methods for monitoring snow cover make it possible to observe parameters such as the boundary and depth of the snow cover, temperature and moisture content of the snow. For these purposes, radio waves in the visible range (wavelength 0.4 - 0.72 microns) and near infrared range (wavelength 0.72 - 1.3 microns) are used. To more clearly record the boundaries of a snow field, microwave radio waves (wavelength from 0.8 to 30 microns) are used, since this is where the contrast between snow and soil is best displayed.
Non-contact methods for monitoring soil and vegetation cover. In this case, observe the following optical characteristics:
Spectral brightness coefficient (ratio of measurement brightness to reference scattering brightness);
Spectral reflectance characteristics; - albedo (a value characterizing the reflection of the flux of incident light to the flux of reflected light). Radio waves of the red and infrared ranges are used (wavelength from 0.6 to 11 microns). Such monitoring makes it possible to clearly distinguish the differences between wet and dry soil, sparse or dense green vegetation.
Of great importance in organizing rational environmental management is the study of environmental management problems at the global, regional and local levels, as well as assessment of the quality of the human environment in specific territories, in ecosystems of various ranks.
Monitoring is a system of observations, assessments and forecasts that allows us to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activities.
Along with the negative impact on nature, a person can also have a positive impact as a result of economic activity.
The monitoring includes:
monitoring changes in environmental quality and factors affecting the environment;
assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
forecast of changes in environmental quality.
Observations can be carried out based on physical, chemical and biological indicators; integrated indicators of the state of the environment are promising.
Types of monitoring. There are global, regional and local monitoring. (What is the basis for such a distinction?)
Global monitoring allows us to assess the current state of the entire natural system of the Earth.
Regional monitoring is carried out at the expense of the system’s stations, which receive information about territories subject to anthropogenic influence.
Rational use of natural resources is possible with the availability and correct use of information provided by the monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring is a system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact.
Monitoring objectives are:
Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover, flora and fauna, control of wastewater and dust and gas emissions at industrial enterprises;
Drawing up a forecast about the state of the environment;
Informing citizens about changes in the environment.
Forecast and forecasting.
What is forecasting and forecasting? During different periods of social development, methods of studying the environment changed. Forecasting is currently considered one of the most important “tools” for environmental management. Translated into Russian, the word “forecast” means foresight, prediction.
Therefore, a forecast in environmental management is a prediction of changes in natural resource potential and needs for natural resources on a global, regional and local scale
Forecasting is a set of actions that allow us to make judgments regarding the behavior of natural systems and are determined by natural processes and the impact of humanity on them in the future.
The main goal of the forecast is to assess the expected response of the natural environment to direct or indirect human impact, as well as to solve problems of future rational environmental management in connection with the expected conditions of the natural environment.
In connection with the revaluation of the value system, the change from technocratic thinking to ecological, changes are also taking place in forecasting. Modern forecasts should be made from the standpoint of universal human values, the main ones of which are man, his health, the quality of the environment, and the preservation of the planet as a home for humanity. Thus, attention to living nature and to people makes forecasting tasks environmental.
Types of forecasts. Based on the lead time, the following types of forecasts are distinguished: ultra-short-term (up to a year), short-term (up to 3-5 years), medium-term (up to 10-15 years), long-term (up to several decades in advance), ultra-long-term (for millennia and more). -more forward). The lead time of the forecast, i.e. the period for which the forecast is given, can be very different. When designing a large industrial facility with a service life of 100–120 years, it is necessary to know what changes in the natural environment may occur under the influence of this facility in 2100–2200. No wonder they say: “The future is controlled from the present.”
Based on territory coverage, global, regional, and local forecasts are distinguished.
There are forecasts in specific branches of science, for example geological and meteorological forecasts. In geography - a comprehensive forecast, which many consider general scientific.
The main functions of monitoring are quality control of individual components of the natural environment and identification of the main sources of pollution. Based on monitoring data, decisions are made to improve the environmental situation, new treatment facilities are built at enterprises that pollute the land, atmosphere and water, forest cutting systems are changed and new forests are planted, soil-protective crop rotations are introduced, etc.
Monitoring is most often carried out by regional hydrometeorological service committees through a network of points conducting the following observations: surface meteorological, heat balance, hydrological, marine, etc.
For example, monitoring of Moscow includes constant analysis of the content of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, the amount of nitrogen oxides, ozone and dust. Observations are carried out by 30 stations operating in automatic mode. Information from sensors located at stations flows to the information processing center. Information about exceeding the maximum permissible concentration of pollutants is sent to the Moscow Committee for Environmental Protection and the capital government. Industrial emissions from large enterprises and the level of water pollution in the Moscow River are automatically monitored.
There are currently 344 water monitoring stations in the world in 59 countries, which form a global environmental monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring
Monitoring(lat. monitor observing, warning) - a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the biosphere or its individual elements under the influence of anthropogenic influences
Main monitoring tasks:
monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact; monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;
forecasting changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessing the predicted state of the natural environment.
Classifications of monitoring based on characteristics:
Control methods:
Bioindication - detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them;
Remote methods (aerial photography, sensing, etc.);
Physico-chemical methods (analysis of individual samples of air, water, soil).
environment. This system is administered by UNEP, the UN's special environmental agency.
Types of monitoring. Based on the scale of generalization of information, they are distinguished: global, regional, impact monitoring.
Global monitoring- this is monitoring global processes and phenomena in the biosphere and making a forecast of possible changes.
Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural ones in nature or due to anthropogenic impact.
Impact monitoring is carried out in particularly hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.
Based on the methods of monitoring, the following types of monitoring are distinguished:
Biological (using bioindicators);
Remote (aviation and space);
Analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).
The objects of observation are:
Monitoring of individual environmental components (soil, water, air);
Biological monitoring (flora and fauna).
A special type of monitoring is basic monitoring, i.e. monitoring the state of natural systems that are practically not affected by regional anthropogenic impacts (biosphere reserves). The purpose of basic monitoring is to obtain data with which the results obtained by other types of monitoring are compared.
Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of sustainability of natural ecosystems is determined by the bioindication method.
Bioindication is the detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of a particular species. The objects of bioindication research can be individual species of animals and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. For example, radioactive contamination is determined by the condition of coniferous trees; industrial pollution - for many representatives of soil fauna; Air pollution is very sensitive to mosses, lichens, and butterflies.
Species diversity and high numbers or, conversely, the absence of dragonflies (Odonata) on the shore of a reservoir indicate its faunal composition: many dragonflies - the fauna is rich, few - the aquatic fauna is poor.
If lichens disappear on tree trunks in a forest, it means there is sulfur dioxide in the air. Only in clean water are caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera) found. But the small scale worm (Tubifex), the larvae of chironomids (Chironomidae) live only in heavily polluted water bodies. Many insects, green single-celled algae, and crustaceans live in slightly polluted water bodies.
Bioindication makes it possible to timely identify a level of pollution that is not yet dangerous and take measures to restore the ecological balance of the environment.
In some cases, the bioindication method is preferred because it is simpler than, for example, physicochemical methods of analysis.
Thus, English scientists discovered several molecules in the liver of flounder - indicators of pollution. When the total concentration of life-threatening substances reaches critical values, a potentially carcinogenic protein begins to accumulate in liver cells. Its quantitative determination is simpler than chemical analysis of water and provides more information about its danger to human life and health.
Remote methods are used mainly for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution during an oil spill at sea or on land, such as a tanker accident or a pipeline rupture. Other methods do not provide comprehensive information in these extreme situations.
OKB im. Ilyushin, the aircraft builders of the Lukhovitsky plant designed and built the Il-10Z, a unique aircraft to perform almost any task of state environmental and land monitoring. The aircraft is equipped with control, measuring and telemetric equipment, a satellite navigation system (CPS), a satellite communication system, and an interactive on-board and ground-based measuring and recording complex. The aircraft can fly at altitudes from 100 to 3000 m, stay in the air for up to 5 hours, consumes only 10-15 liters of fuel per 100 km and takes on board in addition to the pilot two specialists. The new Il-103 aircraft of the Aviation Center for Special Environmental Purposes, based at the Myachikovo airfield near Moscow, perform remote monitoring for ecologists, aviation forest protection, emergency services and oil and gas pipeline transport.
Physico-chemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.
Soil monitoring involves determining acidity, humus loss, and salinity. Soil acidity is determined by the pH value in aqueous soil solutions. The pH value is measured using a pH meter or potentiometer. Humus content is determined by the oxidability of organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent is assessed by titrimetric or spectrometric methods. Soil salinity, i.e., the content of salts in them, is determined by the value of electrical conductivity, since it is known that salt solutions are electrolytes.
Water pollution is determined by chemical (COD) or biochemical (BOD) oxygen consumption - this is the amount of oxygen spent on the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances contained in contaminated water.
Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information about the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air. “Multicomponent” analysis methods are used: C-, H-, N-analyzers and other devices that give continuous time characteristics of air pollution. Automated devices for remote analysis of atmospheric pollution, combining a laser and a locator, are called lidars.
Environmental quality assessment
What is assessment and evaluation?
An important area of monitoring research is the assessment of environmental quality. This direction, as you already know, has received priority importance in modern environmental management, since the quality of the environment is associated with the physical and spiritual health of a person.
Indeed, a distinction is made between a healthy (comfortable) natural environment, in which a person’s health is normal or improving, and an unhealthy environment, in which the health of the population is impaired. Therefore, to maintain the health of the population, it is necessary to monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental quality— this is the degree of correspondence of natural conditions to the physiological capabilities of a person.
There are scientific criteria for assessing environmental quality. These include standards.
Environmental quality standards. Quality standards are divided into environmental and production and economic.
Environmental standards establish maximum permissible norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, the excess of which threatens human health and is detrimental to vegetation and animals. Such standards are established in the form of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants (MPC) and maximum permissible levels of harmful physical impact (MPL). Remote control panels are installed, for example, for noise and electromagnetic pollution.
MPC is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which over a certain period of time does not affect human health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring.
Recently, when determining MPCs, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the impact of these pollutants as a whole on natural communities. Every year, more and more maximum permissible concentrations are established for substances in the air, soil, and water.
Production and economic environmental quality standards regulate the environmentally safe operating mode of production, public utility and any other facility. Production and economic environmental quality standards include the maximum permissible release of pollutants into the environment (MPE). How to improve the quality of the environment? Many experts are thinking about this problem. Environmental quality control is carried out by a special government service. Measures to improve environmental quality. They are combined into the following groups. The most important are technological measures, which include the development of modern technologies that ensure the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal. Choosing a fuel with less combustion product will significantly reduce emissions into the atmosphere. This is also facilitated by the electrification of modern production, transport and everyday life.
Sanitation measures contribute to the treatment of industrial emissions through various designs of treatment plants. (Are there treatment facilities at the nearest enterprises in your locality? How effective are they?)
The set of measures that improve the quality of the environment includes architectural and planning activities that affect not only physical, but also spiritual health. These include dust control, rational placement of enterprises (they are often moved outside the territory of a populated area) and residential areas, landscaping of populated areas, for example, with modern urban planning standards for cities with a population of one and a half million, 40-50 m2 of green space is required , it is mandatory to allocate sanitary protection zones in the populated area.
TO engineering and organizational Measures include reducing parking at traffic lights and reducing traffic intensity on congested highways.
To legal Activities include the establishment and compliance with legislative acts to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, water bodies, soil, etc.
Requirements related to nature protection and improvement of environmental quality are reflected in state laws, decrees, and regulations. World experience shows that in developed countries, authorities solve problems related to improving the quality of the environment through legislative acts and executive structures, which, together with the judicial system, are designed to ensure compliance with laws, finance large environmental projects and scientific developments, and control compliance with laws and financial costs.
There is no doubt that improvement in environmental quality will be achieved through economic events. Economic measures are associated, first of all, with the investment of funds in the replacement and development of new technologies that ensure energy and resource conservation, reducing emissions of harmful substances into the environment. The means of state tax and price policy must create conditions for Russia’s inclusion in the international system of ensuring environmental safety. At the same time, in our country, due to the economic recession, the volume of introduction of new environmental technologies into industry has decreased significantly.
Educational measures aimed at creating an ecological culture of the population. The quality of the environment largely depends on the formation of new value and moral attitudes, the revision of priorities, needs, and methods of human activity. In our country, within the framework of the state program “Ecology of Russia”, programs and manuals have been developed for environmental education at all levels of knowledge acquisition from preschool institutions to the advanced training system. An important tool in the formation of environmental culture is the media. In Russia alone there are over 50 environmentally oriented periodicals.
All activities aimed at improving the quality of the environment are closely interconnected and largely depend on the development of science. Therefore, the most important condition for the existence of all measures is to conduct scientific research that ensures improved environmental quality and environmental sustainability of both the planet as a whole and individual regions.
However, it should be noted that measures taken to improve environmental quality do not always bring a noticeable effect. An increase in the incidence of the population, a decrease in the average life expectancy of people, and an increase in mortality indicate the development of negative environmental phenomena in our country.
Types of monitoring. According to the scale of generalization of information distinguish: global, regional, impact monitoring.
Global monitoring - this is monitoring global processes and phenomena in the biosphere and forecasting possible changes.
Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural ones in nature or due to anthropogenic impact
Impact monitoring carried out in particularly hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.
By methods of management The following types of monitoring are distinguished:
biological (using bioindicators);
remote (aviation and space);
analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).
The objects of observation are:
monitoring of individual components environment (soil, water, air);
biological monitoring (flora and fauna).
Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of sustainability of a natural ecosystem is determined by the bioindication method.
Bioindication- is the detection and identification of anthropogenic
significant loads based on the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of one or another
Remote methods are used mainly for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution during an oil spill at sea or on land, i.e. in case of tanker accidents or pipeline ruptures.
Physico-chemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.
Soil monitoring involves determining acidity, humus loss, and salinity. Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information about the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air.
Self-test questions
What is the purpose of environmental monitoring?
What types of monitoring are there?
Give examples of physical and chemical monitoring methods.
What methods are used to conduct global monitoring?
Environmental protection in our country is regulated at the state level. Russia became one of the first countries in which a legal framework was created to regulate the protection of the natural environment and the rational use of natural resources. The first law on nature conservation was adopted in the RSFSR in 19560. In the USA, a similar law was adopted 10 years later. The first official international event dedicated to environmental issues, the UN Stockholm Conference, took place in 1972.
The system of environmental legislation in Russia consists of two subsystems: natural resources and environmental protection. In nature
pre-resource legislation includes regulations governing the protection and use of certain types of natural resources: Land Code of the Russian Federation (2001), Forest Code of the Russian Federation (1997), Water Code of the Russian Federation (1995), Law of the Russian Federation “On Subsoil” dated 21 February 1992 No. 2395-I (as amended by the Federal Law of March 3, 1995 No. 27-FZ), Federal Law of May 4, 1999 No. 96-FZ “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air”, Federal Law of April 24 1995 No. 52-FZ “On the animal world.”
Environmental legislation includes regulations governing environmental protection in general: Federal Law of January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ “On Environmental Protection”, Federal Law of March 30, 1999 No. 52-FZ “On Sanitary and Epidemiological well-being of the population”, Federal Law of November 23, 19955 No. 174-FZ “On Environmental Expertise”, Federal Law of June 24, 1998 No. 89-FZ “On Production and Consumption Waste”.
The formation of Russian environmental legislation consists of three main stages:
emergence, formation and development within the framework of land law;
development within the natural resource sectors;
going beyond the natural resource sectors.
The first stage (1917 - 1968). The first legal act of the Soviet state was the Decree on Land of April 26 (November 8), 1917. Its main goal was to change economic relations regarding land use, but at the same time it laid the foundation for environmental relations, as it established the withdrawal of land from commercial relations, and therefore created the conditions for its protection. Further decrees were adopted: on forests from May 27, 1918; about the bowels of the earth from April 30, 1919; on the protection of natural monuments, gardens and parks dated October 16, 1921, etc. These regulations outlined trends towards the careful use of natural objects.
In the late 50's - early 60's. laws on nature protection were adopted in all union republics of the USSR.
Second stage (1969 - 1988). This period is characterized by the active formation of natural resource branches of law. The Fundamentals of Water Legislation are adopted (1970), the Fundamentals of
legislation on subsoil (1975), Fundamentals of forestry legislation (1977). In 1980, two Union laws were adopted - on the protection and use of wildlife and on the protection of atmospheric air.
With the entry into force of the USSR Constitution of 1977, environmental protection acquired constitutional status (Articles 18 and 42 of the USSR Constitution).
This period was marked by several major disasters: the Chernobyl accident, the disaster of Lake Ladoga and the Aral Sea. These disasters required urgent measures to improve the relationship between society and nature.
Third stage (1989 - present). The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated January 7, 1988 created the conditions for the formation of a new approach to environmental management:
The system of environmental authorities was reformed. This decree created a supra-departmental body of the USSR State Committee for Nature Protection (later - the USSR Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection);
it was considered expedient to create in Moscow, in the system of the USSR State Committee for Environmental Protection, an All-Union Scientific Research Center on problems of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources;
in accordance with the resolution, an environmental assessment system was created;
was introduced for emissions of substances that pollute the environment.
An important stage in the formation of environmental legislation was the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation on December 12, 1993, which determined the equality of various forms of ownership of land and other natural resources, as well as the right of citizens to a favorable environment.
After the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the legislation of the Russian Federation, including environmental legislation, was almost completely revised. New environmental legislation has been formed -
state of the Russian Federation.
Topic No. 4.2 “Technical means of individual and collective protection”
1. Means and methods of control and monitoring of hazardous and negative factors of natural and anthropogenic origin
2. Technical means of individual and collective protection.
2.1 General characteristics and classification of collective protective equipment.
2.2 Technical personal protective equipment.
LITERATURE:
1. Federal Law of 1998 No. 28-FZ “On Civil Defense”.
2. Federal Law of 1996 No. 61-FZ “On Defense”.
3. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 2003 No. 794 “On a unified state system for preventing and eliminating emergency situations.”
4. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 2007 No. 804 “Regulations on civil defense in the Russian Federation.”
5. Engineering protection of the population and territories in emergency situations in peacetime and war: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.A. Puchkova.- M.: Academic Project; Ekaterinburg: Business book, 2010. – 684 p. – (Fundamental textbook).
6. Organization of the medical service of civil defense of the Russian Federation / Ed. Yu.I. Pogodina, S.V. Trifonova - M.: Medicine for You, 2003. - 212 p.
7. Organization of medical care to the population in emergency situations: Proc. Manual / V.I. Sakhno, G.I. Zakharov, N.E. Karlin, N.M. Pilnik. - St. Petersburg: FOLIANT Publishing House LLC, 2003. - 248 p.
8. Medical support in emergency situations: Textbook for medical universities / Ed. P.I. Sidorova. – M.: GEOTAR-MED, 2006. – 1040 p.
Means and methods of control and monitoring of hazardous and negative factors of natural and anthropogenic origin
In the general system of measures to counter emergency situations, priority should be given to a set of measures aimed at reducing the risk of emergencies and mitigating their consequences. It is based on emergency risk management, which is not possible without information support for preparing and making management decisions to prevent and respond to emergency situations. To manage risk, monitoring of the state of the natural environment and technosphere objects, risk analysis and emergency forecasting are carried out.
The term “monitoring” first appeared in 1971 in the recommendations of the special commission SCOPE (Scientific Committee on the Environment) at UNESCO, and in 1972 the first proposals for a global environmental monitoring system were developed (United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Environment).
Environmental monitoring – monitoring the state of the environment and warning about emerging negative situations. Its main tasks are
- monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact;
- monitoring of anthropogenic impact factors;
- monitoring the state of the environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;
- assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- forecast of dangerous changes in the natural environment under the influence of negative impact factors and assessment of the predicted state.
Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated March 31, 2003 No. 177 approved the “Regulations on the organization and implementation of state environmental monitoring”, according to which the information obtained during environmental monitoring is used in predicting emergencies and taking measures to prevent them.
The information strategy of the state and each production facility to promote health and prevent diseases of the population should include:
Regular information about threats to the environment;
Regular information about toxic releases into the environment;
Regular information for workers about negative production factors and their impact on health;
Information about the health status of the region's population and occupational diseases;
Information about means and methods of protection against hazards;
Information about the responsibility of enterprise managers and security services for violations in the field of health protection and the safe state of the living environment.
In general, under monitoring [from lat. Monitor – warning] refers to a certain system of observation (as well as assessment and forecast) of the state and development of natural, man-made, social processes and phenomena. It consists of monitoring the state of certain structures, objects, phenomena and processes, and its results are used to warn about emerging dangers, threats and critical situations and provide management bodies with information support for preparing and making management decisions to change the state and development of the system in the right direction , process or phenomenon.
Monitoring data and information about various processes and phenomena serve as the basis for risk analysis and forecasting. The purpose of forecasting an emergency is to identify the time of its occurrence, possible location, scale and consequences for the population and the environment.
There are a large number of types of monitoring, differing in the sources and factors of anthropogenic impacts taken into account, the responses of biosphere components to these impacts, observation methods, etc. In the literature, the most common classification of types of monitoring is based on the following criteria:
Spatial coverage;
Object of observation (atmospheric air, land and sea waters, soils, geological environment, flora and fauna, humans);
Physical factors of influence (ionizing radiation, electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation, noise, vibration);
Methods (direct instrumental measurement, remote shooting, indirect indication, surveys, diary observations);
The degree of relationship between effect and process that is being observed;
Type of impact (geophysical, biological, medical-geographical, socio-economic, social);
Purposes (determining the current state of the environment, studying phenomena, short-term forecasts, long-term conclusions, optimizing and increasing the economic efficiency of research and forecasts, monitoring the impact on the environment, etc.).
In accordance with the types of pollution, monitoring is divided into global, regional, impact and basic.
Global monitoring monitors global processes and phenomena in the biosphere and forecasts possible changes.
Regional monitoring covers individual regions within which processes and phenomena are observed that differ in natural nature or anthropogenic influences from natural biological processes.
Impact monitoring provides observations in particularly dangerous areas and places directly adjacent to pollution sources.
Base monitoring monitors the state of natural systems, which are practically not affected by regional anthropogenic influences. To carry out basic monitoring, territories remote from industrial regions are used.
When monitoring, the state of air, surface waters, climate changes, properties of soil cover, and the state of flora and fauna are characterized qualitatively and quantitatively. Each of the listed components of the biosphere has special requirements and specific analysis methods are developed.
The main goals of monitoring are to provide timely and reliable information allowing:
Assess indicators of the state of the ecosystem and human habitat;
Identify the reasons for changes in these indicators and assess the consequences of such changes;
Determine corrective measures in cases where environmental performance targets are not achieved;
Create the prerequisites for identifying measures to correct emerging negative situations before damage occurs.
In our country, a system of state measures has been established by law, enshrined in law and aimed at preserving, restoring and improving favorable conditions necessary for people’s lives and the development of material production.
Environmental legislation includes the Russian Federation Law “On Environmental Protection” and other legislative acts of comprehensive legal regulation.
An important role is played by regulatory rules - sanitary, construction, technical and economic, technological, etc. These include environmental quality standards: standards for permissible radiation, noise levels, vibration, etc. Quality standards are maximum permissible standards for the impact of anthropogenic activities on the natural environment.
Standardization of the quality of the natural environment is the process of developing and giving legal norms to scientifically based standards in the form of indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on nature or the environment. The maximum permissible norm is the legally established size of human impact on the environment. Maximum permissible norms are a kind of forced compromise that makes it possible to develop the economy and protect human life and well-being.
In accordance with the Law, the following requirements are imposed on the content of the standards:
Environmental safety of the population;
Preservation of the genetic fund;
Ensuring rational use and reproduction of natural resources;
Sustainable development of economic activities.
Quality standards are assessed based on three indicators:
· Medical (they set a threshold level of threat to human health, his genetic program).
· Technological (assess the level of established limits of technogenic impact on humans and the environment).
· Scientific and technical (assess the ability of scientific and technical means to monitor compliance with exposure limits for all characteristics).
Quality standards do not have legal force until they are approved by the competent authority. Such bodies are the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance under the Government of the Russian Federation (Goskomsanepidnadzor), the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation and the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection (Goskomekologiya)
The State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance of Russia monitors the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population. The Ministry of Natural Resources monitors the subsoil (geological environment), including monitoring of groundwater and hazardous exogenous and endogenous geological processes; monitoring of the aquatic environment of water management systems and structures in areas of water collection and wastewater discharge. The tasks of the State Committee for Ecology include:
Coordination of the activities of ministries and departments, enterprises and organizations in the field of environmental monitoring;
Organization of monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment and areas of their direct impact;
Organization of monitoring of flora and fauna;
Ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems;
Maintaining data banks on the natural environment, natural resources and their use with interested ministries and departments.
When developing an environmental monitoring project, the following information is required:
Sources of pollutants;
Transfers of pollutants (processes of atmospheric transfer and transfer in the aquatic environment);
Data on the state of anthropogenic emission sources.
A number of systems for monitoring environmental pollution and the state of natural resources operate on the territory of the Russian Federation. In the state system of environmental management in Russia, an important role is played by the formation of a unified state system of environmental monitoring (USEMS).
EGSEM includes:
Monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment;
Monitoring of pollution of the abiotic component of the environment;
Monitoring of the biotic component of the environment;
Social and hygienic monitoring;
Ensuring the creation and functioning of environmental information systems.
All environmental regulation and standardization is based on the following standards:
MPC – maximum permissible concentrations;
MDA – maximum permissible doses;
MPL – maximum permissible levels of harmful agents;
MPE – maximum permissible emissions (to the atmosphere);
MPD – maximum permissible discharges (into water bodies).
MPC is the highest concentration of substances in the environment and sources of biological consumption (air, water, soil, food), which, with more or less prolonged exposure to the body - contact, inhalation, ingestion - does not affect health and does not cause delayed effects. Since the effect of harmful effects depends on many factors (duration of action, characteristics of the situation, sensitivity of recipients), maximum permissible concentrations are distinguished:
MPCss – average daily MPC;
MPCmr – maximum one-time MPC;
MPCrz - working area.
Control means are divided into:
Contact;
Non-contact (remote);
Biological.
Controlled indicators:
Functional (productivity, assessment of the circulation of substances, etc.);
Structural (absolute or relative values of physical, chemical or biological parameters).
Contact methods for monitoring the state of the environment are represented by both classical methods of chemical analysis and modern methods of instrumental analysis.
Contact control methods are divided into chemical, physico-chemical and physical.
The most used are spectral, electrochemical and chromatographic methods for analyzing environmental objects.
The general control scheme includes the following stages:
1) sampling;
2) sample processing for the purpose of preserving the measured parameter and its transportation;
3) storage and preparation of the sample for analysis;
4) measurement of the controlled parameter;
5) processing and storage of results.
Non-contact (remote) methods are based on the use of two properties of probing fields (electromagnetic, acoustic, gravitational): interaction with the controlled object and transfer of the received information to the sensor - this is aerospace and geophysical control.
Biological control is carried out for the purpose of a comprehensive assessment of the quality of the habitat and provides an integral characteristic of its condition. Biological observation methods – bioindication and biotesting.
According to the classification of hazardous and harmful production factors, the most frequently controlled are:
Noise level;
Level of ionizing radiation;
Level of electromagnetic radiation;
The presence of pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, spirochetes, fungi, protozoa) and their metabolic products.
In this case, various modifications of sound level meters (Testo 815, etc.), dosimeters and radiometers (DKG-RM1621, IMD-7, MKS-07N, ID-1, etc.), meters of electric and magnetic field parameters (VE-METR-AT) are used -002, P3-31, RADEKS EMI 50, etc.), universal gas analyzers for various hazardous chemicals (UG-2, GSA-3M, IGS-98 "Binom-V", etc.), etc.
In emergency situations, one of the main dangers that can be controlled is the damage to people by radioactive or toxic (OM) and hazardous chemical substances (HAS), which requires rapid identification and assessment of the radiation and chemical situation in conditions of contamination. The organization of radiation and chemical surveillance is designed to warn the population about the danger of infection. The state of the atmosphere is constantly monitored by meteorological service posts that monitor radiation and chemical contamination.
During a nuclear explosion, accidents at nuclear power plants and other nuclear transformations, a large amount of radioactive substances (RS) is formed. Radioactive substances are substances whose atomic nuclei are capable of spontaneously decaying and transforming into the nuclei of atoms of other elements and emitting ionizing radiation. They infect the area and the people, objects, property and various objects on it.
Along with ionizing radiation, hazardous substances from the use of chemical weapons, as well as hazardous hazardous substances in industrial accidents, pose a great danger to people and the entire environment.
Injury to people can be caused by direct contact with hazardous substances and hazardous substances, as a result of people coming into contact with contaminated soil and objects, consuming contaminated products and water, as well as by inhaling contaminated air.
In order to timely notify the population about possible radiation and chemical contamination, civil defense radiation and chemical intelligence services have appropriate instruments that can monitor the state of the environment.
Dosimetric instruments are designed to determine the levels of radiation in the area, the degree of contamination of clothing, human skin, food, water, fodder, transport and other various items and objects, as well as to measure the doses of radioactive exposure of people when they are in objects and areas contaminated radioactive substances.
In accordance with their purpose, dosimetric instruments can be divided into devices for radiation reconnaissance of the area, for monitoring the degree of contamination and for monitoring exposure.
The group of instruments for radiation reconnaissance of the area includes radioactivity indicators and X-ray meters; The group of devices for monitoring the degree of contamination includes radiometers, and the group of devices for monitoring exposure includes dosimeters.
Detection and determination of the degree of contamination with chemical agents and hazardous substances, terrain, structures, equipment, transport, personal protective equipment, clothing, food, water, fodder and other objects is carried out using chemical reconnaissance devices or by taking samples and subsequently analyzing them in chemical laboratories.
The principle of detecting and determining OM by chemical reconnaissance devices is based on the change in color of indicators when they interact with OM. Depending on which indicator was taken and how it changed color, the type of agent is determined, and comparison of the intensity of the resulting color with a color standard allows one to judge the approximate concentration of agent in the air or the density of infection.
The learning process is impossible without monitoring knowledge and skills. The development of a control system is carried out not only by scientists - teachers who publish various manuals, but also by every teacher - a subject teacher in particular. Modern requirements for training programs require the mandatory availability of test and measurement materials. Before compiling them, you need to answer a number of questions:
Control, in simple words, is checking the compliance of the results obtained with the learning goals set in advance. But its functions are not limited to checking the compliance of knowledge and competencies with the requirements of the educational standard. In modern didactics, the following functions are distinguished:
By compiling test and measurement materials that perform the listed functions, the teacher will be able to increase the effectiveness of teaching several times.
The type of control in the lesson depends on the stage of training. In this regard, the following are distinguished:
When moving to study a new topic or section, the teacher needs to determine what knowledge and skills the student already possesses. This is especially true in the fifth and tenth grades, since students arrive with varying degrees of preparedness. In addition, for example, in history lessons, the concentric system presupposes repeated, but deeper, scientific study of almost all topics in the 10th grade. Therefore, here the holding preliminary control especially important. The value of this type of review is evident in identifying issues that will need to be given increased attention.
One of the main conditions for successful training is the constant detection of existing gaps in knowledge for their timely elimination. This will help current control, which is basically part of the lesson.
Name « thematic control» speaks for itself. It is carried out after studying a new topic or section, mainly in lessons of control and correction of knowledge. The main goal is to prepare students for tests or final control.
At the end of the school year and after completing a certain level of education (primary, basic school) final control. We can say that all previous types of checks prepare for the main, final check. Based on its results, the degree of mastery of the curriculum over a year or several years is determined.
In school practice, five main forms of control are used:
Control methods are methods that help identify the degree of knowledge acquisition and mastery of the required competencies. Control methods also make it possible to evaluate the effectiveness of a teacher’s work. The school uses such methods as oral questioning, written work, tests, tests.
Oral questioning is one of the most common verification methods. It can be carried out in individual, frontal, and combined forms. Let's look at their differences.
Written work can be offered in different forms, depending on the subject: dictations, essays, reports, tests, tests, graphic works. Dictations can be used not only in Russian language lessons; they can be historical, geographical, mathematical and others. They also now produce various printed notebooks for almost every subject.
In connection with the introduction of the Unified State Exam and the Unified State Exam, the test method has recently become very popular. It allows you to quickly test your knowledge on one or more topics. This method should not be used continuously as it cannot test creativity and students may answer at random; The test method does not allow the student to deeply analyze the topic.
Depending on who performs the control, they divide:
It is advisable to combine different types rather than constantly using only one of them.
The teacher faces the difficult task of choosing the appropriate means of assessing knowledge and skills for the lesson. As mentioned above, one of the most common methods currently is testing. A great variety of tests are now published in all subjects. In addition, the teacher himself can create test questions or assign this task to students (of course, for a separate mark). Test questions can be:
Questions must be accurate, not controversial, and consistent with the curriculum and material covered.
In addition to tests, handouts can be used to conduct control. Now you can develop it yourself, buy it or download it from the Internet. These can be cards with questions, maps, diagrams, etc.
Also, one of the means of control is homework. It can take place in different forms, but if it is completely absent or irregular, then the homework itself will simply become worthless.
Computer-based assessment tools are now very popular. Their advantages: no need to waste material for compilation, quick checking (carried out by computer), and student interest is activated.
Control will give the desired effect if its implementation meets the following requirements:
Control is a necessary part of any lesson. The effectiveness of training depends on its organization, conduct and assessment.
